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METHODS 



OF 



TEACHING GYMNASTICS 



BY 



/ 



V 

WILLIAM GILBERT ANDERSON, M.D., 

Associate Director of the Yale University Gymnasium, President of the 

Anderson Normal School of Gymnastics, Dean of the Chautauqua 

School of Physical Education, etc. 




MEADVILLE, PENN'A 
FLOOD AND VINCENT 

Cfoe (Cbautauqua-tjftenturp $rep£ 



1% W2- " 



M DCCC XCVI 



Astr 



Copyright, 1896 
By Flood & Vincent 



The Chautauqua- Century Press, Meadville, Pa., U. S. A. 
Electrotyped, Printed, and Bound by Flood & Vincent. 



^ 

i 
^ 



THIS BOOK IS DEDICATED TO MY FATHER, 

JEDvvarD BnDerscm, 

WHO, TWENTY-FIVE YEARS AGO, 

STARTED ME IN THIS WORK, 

AND WHO HAS ALWAYS 

BEEN MY COUNCILOR 

AND ENTHUSIASTIC 

SUPPORTER. 



CONTENTS 






CHAPTER. 

I. 
II. 

III. 

a! IV. 
V. 

VI. 

VII. 

VIII. 

IX. 

X. 

XI. 

- XII. 

XIII. 

XIV. 

XV. 

XVI. 

XVII. 

XVIII. 

XIX. 



PAGE. 

Introduction 7 

Opinions of Educators on Education . . 16 
Opinions of Educators on Physiccd Edu- 
cation 29 

The Ethical Element in Physiccd Train- 
ing 40 

The Gymnastic Day's Order 57 

Effect of Certain Exercises upon the Pulse- 
rate 68 

Stimulus, or How to Arouse Interest . . 76 

Attention 84 

Discipline, or School Government ... 95 
Analysis. — Synthesis. —Reflex Acts . . . . Ill 
Why do we Teach?— Who Shall Teach? 115 
Outline Lessons on Parts of the Body . 122 

How to Teach Walking \^e^*. 151 

The Alphabet 15S 

The Voice. — Commands 164 

Hints on Teaching a Class of Boys . . 171 

Military Gymnastics 183 

Use of Light Apparcdus 216 

Mannerisms 242 

Division of Work for the Month and 
Day 245 

V 



ILLUSTRATIONS. 

Page. 

Fig. 1. Normal Pulse, Standing 73 

Fig. 2. Pulse-rate after Running in Place 73 

Fig. 3. Pulse-rate after Slow Leg Work and Breathing Exercises 73 

Fig. 4. Pulse-rate, in Place Rest 73 

Fig. 5. Turn Head, Wand Front, Stepping 124 

Fig. 6. Letter Y 124 

Fig. 7. The Chest Machine 140 

Fig. 8. Attention 148 

Fig. 9. Knee Bending 148 

Fig. 10. Stepping Motion, Neck Firm 156 

Fig. 11. The Charging Motion 156 

Fig. 12. Foot Placing, Two Foot Lengths 157 

Fig. 13. The Reverse Charge -. 157 

Fig. 14. Foot Placing, One Foot Length 188 

Fig. 15. Right Arm Out, Left Arm Front, Face to Left, Reverse 

Charge, Left Leg Front 188 

Fig. 16. In Place Rest 189 

Fig. 17. Measuring Facing Distance 189 

Fig. 18. Form Fours from Twos 208 

Fig. 19. Form Twos from a File 209 

Fig. 20. Form Twos from Fours 210 

Fig. 21. Right, Forward, Fours Right 212 

Fig. 22. Carrying Wand Incorrectly 228 

Fig. 23. Method of Grasping Wand 228 

Fig.24. Wand Down 229 

Fig. 25. The Single Pendulum 229 

Fig. 26. The Grasp 236 

Fig. 27. The Starting Position 236 

Fig. 28. Start for the Second Circle 237 

Fig. 29. Finish of the Second Circle 237 

Fig. 30. Start for the Half Snake. 252 

Fig. 31. Knees Bent for Fencing 253 

Fig. 32. Hips Firm , 253 

Fig. 33. Neck Firm 253 



METHODS OF TEACHING GYMNASTICS. 
INTRODUCTION. 

If an excuse were made for writing this book, it 
would be that many teachers of gymnastics need it. It 
cannot be said that the book will contain many new or 
startling axioms, but it will try to prove that the laws 
of pedagogy are as applicable to teaching gymnastics as 
to teaching the three R's. In short, the principles of 
schooling should be known to instructors in any branch. 
A teacher may or may not be successful. She may have 
a fund of knowledge at her disposal ; her record in the 
normal school from which she graduated may have been 
the best, yet she may fail as an instructor ; she cannot 
impart her knowledge to others. What is it that makes 
one a good instructor, w T hile another, who has had the 
same training and stood equally well, fails ? This ques- 
tion will be discussed in the following pages. An at- 
tempt will be made to lay down teaching rules for the 
one who trains the body. Experience is a good edu- 
cator ; a wise man learns from the experience of others. 
Consequently, if one who has made many mistakes 
during ten years of tuition makes statements based upon 
his experience, they should be of some value to the be- 
ginner. 

It will be said that successful teaching is a matter of 
natural aptitude, or that the instructor possesses a 
special form of genius. This is only partly true. A 



8 INTRODUCTION. 

person who is greatly interested in a subject, and at the 
same time anxious to instruct others, can learn to teach. 
If we were to enforce the law that only those who were 
born teachers should instruct classes, a large per cent 
of those who are'now giving instruction in this country 
would drop from the ranks. There are hundreds of 
born or natural teachers who never give instruction. It 
would be impossible to find them, and so long as it is 
necessary for people who are not classified under the 
head of naturalists to educate, it is well for them to be 
guided by the laws of pedagogy. 

It is time for our teachers to read the various works 
upon the art of teaching. The theory of gymnastics is 
fascinating, the practice more so ; but the application of 
the many rules which are found in works on pedagogy 
has not yet been considered by the majority of physical 
directors. 

The object of this work is not to set forth the claims 
of or criticise any system but to present methods. One 
who has not taught teachers will be surprised at the 
limited knowledge of many of them. Men and women 
who have been teaching for years violate so many rules 
of what, in the generally accepted term, is called peda- 
gogy that we are surprised. The fact that these teach- 
ers keep their positions, draw fair salaries, and give 
satisfaction shows that this part of the subject is new 
not only to the instructor but to the employer. 

Experience proves that the laws of pedagogy should 
be applied to teaching gymnastics, and while the author 
of this work hesitates to rush into print, he believes 
it imperative that the teacher should read more and 



INTRODUCTION. 9 

accept the advice of others ; he therefore takes the in- 
itiative. Teachers read but do not think that they are 
the ones who will be benefited by the advice. They do 
not understand a very important rule, namely, The 
pupil must be put in a teachable condition. It makes no 
difference what the age, the rule holds good. This book 
will try to answer the question, " How shall I put my 
pupil in this condition?" The author's advice is, 
"Don't try to teach a class until they are ' teachable.' " 

The teacher must learn the value of bringing herself 
into the lesson. If she is cross, tired, or her mind filled 
with thoughts foreign to the lesson, she would bet- 
ter try to leave herself out ; if, on the other hand, she is 
filled with a desire to work for more than monej'she can 
fill the position quite acceptably. 

Try to make the work simple. Try to make the com- 
mands plain. Be sure you are understood by your 
pupils. These are a few of the very important axioms 
that should guide you. The young graduate often be- 
gins at the wrong end ; she has in her mind the latest 
teaching of her own faculty, she has forgotten the 
earlier and simpler advice, and so she begins with what 
she learned last. 

The author has used in his teaching a platform ; this 
will form the basis of the chapters that are to follow. A 
portion of this platform is given below. The discussion 
of each portion will be found on the pages mentioned. 

PLATFORM. 

These points will be taken into consideration : 
1. Why do we teach? Page 115. 



10 INTRODUCTION. 

2. What shall we teach ? 

3. How shall we teach ? 
Why do we teach gymnastics ? 

Because the needs of the people demand it. 
What are the needs ? Page 115. 

1. Better health. 

2. Greater strength, proportionately distributed. 

3. Better physiques. 

4. Grace of movement. 

5. Self-control and self-reliance. 

6. Nerve and brain training. 

7. Memory exercises. 

8. Mental rest. 

9. Recreation. 

What shall we teach ? 

1. Exercises that meet the above requirements. 

2. Exercises that promote dexterity and accuracy of 

motion. 

3. Exercises that make the body a better servant of 

the will. 

4. Exercises that induce morality and require obe- 

dience. 

5. Exercises that demand acute observation. 

6. Exercises based upon physiological laws. 

7. Exercises founded upon simple principles. 

8. Exercises that are safe and progressive. 

9. Exercises that are interesting to pupils. 

10. Exercises that may be given in the class-room. 

11. Exercises that are amenable to the laws of ped- 

agogy. 

12. The care of the thorax — "How to breathe." 

Page 134. 

13. What common physical defects are. Page 149. 

14. How to overcome these physical defects. 

15. How to stand. Page 183. 

16. How to walk. Page 153. 



INTRODUCTION. 11 

17. How to sit. 

18. How to run. 

19. How to develop the parts of the body mentioned 

below. 

(1) Neck. Page 122. 

(2) Shoulders. Page 130. 

(3) Arms, wrists, and hands. Page 124. 

(4) Thorax, and its contents. Page 134. 

(5) Back and spine. 

(6) Waist and abdomen. 

(7) Legs and ankles. Page 123. 

Each part will be treated and classified as follows : 

1. Definition and divisions. 

2. Normal position or condition. 

3. Defects. 

4. Cause of these defects. 

5. Results of these defects. 

6. Treatment. 

7. Results of treatment on the parts themselves. 

8. On circulation, respiration, digestion, and nerves. 

9. Secondary effects of treatment. 
10. ^Esthetic gymnastics. 

Exercises are primary or secondary. See page 14. 
The motions are slow, medium, or rapid. 
Exercises are classified under an alphabet of twenty 
motions (see page 158) : 

1. Stepping. 11. Thrusting. 

2. Charging. 12. Rolling. 

3. Lunging. 13. Opening and closing. 

4. Hopping. 14. Slapping. 

5. Reverse charge. 15. Stamping. 

6. Swaying. 16. Circling. 

7. Swinging. 17. Percussing. 

8. Turning or twisting. 18. Shrugging. 

9. Raising and lowering. 19. Placing. 
10. Bending and straightening. 20. Breathing. 



12 INTRODUCTION. 

So far as practicable the laws of Ling will govern the 
arrangement of exercises. They are : 

1. Introductory, or order movements. 

2. Leg 

3. Head and neck 

4. Arm 

5. Balance 

6. Back or shoulder 

7. Abdominal 

8. Side waist 

9. Jumping or running 

10. Slow leg 

11. Breathing 
For a description of the day's order see page 57. 

The author has requested Jakob Bolin, the instructor 
in Swedish gymnastics in the Anderson Normal School, 
in New Haven, and the Chautauqua School of Physical 
Education, to prepare a chapter on what is known as 
the Swedish day's order — an excellent arrangement ap- 
plied to gymnastic movements, and one that is now 
being generally adopted by the American teachers. 
There are reasons for placing the movements as they are, 
and inasmuch as the author wishes to present this mat- 
ter to the American teachers, he has asked this Swedish 
authority to write the chapter. The words, therefore, 
are just as they come from Mr. Bolin's pen. 

The Swedish theory is, perhaps, more nearly perfect 
than that of any other system of gymnastics. The 
American ideas have been modified and influenced 
more by the views of the Swedes than by the opinions 
of any other people. It is not probable that the Swed- 
ish system, as it is, will be universally adopted in this 
country, but there is no question about the influence 



INTRODUCTION. 13 

that it will have upon our methods. The day's order is 
used by the author in his teaching at Yale and at Chau- 
tauqua. There is some doubt in the minds of those who 
have tested the subject whether the order of movements 
will stand close investigation. The author is friendly to 
the Swedish system, but has made a few experiments 
upon the position of exercises in the day's order, One of 
these tests will be given in the chapter devoted to the 
placing of the jumping exercises, slow leg, and breathing 
movements. It has been noticed that the various repre- 
sentatives of the Ling system do not agree upon many 
of the details in their system. 

Mr. Henry S. Anderson, instructor of gymnastics at 
the Yale Gymnasium, has assisted me by acting as 
a model for the illustrations. Mr. Otto Monahan, the 
clerk in the Yale Gymnasium, has also assisted me in 
this way. 

TERMS. 

The attention of the teacher will be called at various 
times to certain names. It is necessary that she should 
understand the meaning of the phrases to be used. It is 
the desire of the instructor that one term shall not have 
a number of different meanings, but shall refer to only 
one kind of exercise. 

Medical Gymnastics. An arrangement of exercises 
for remedying or curing organic diseases, functional dis- 
orders, or any bodily complaint that may be helped by 
specific, passive, or active means. 

Educational Gymnastics. A plan of exercises designed 
for persons who enjoy moderate health, but whose bodily 



14 INTRODUCTION. 

needs require more general training than that given in 
the specific work of Medical Gymnastics. School gym- 
nastics are educational. 

Free Gymnastics. Exercises that are given without 
appliances. 

Light Gymnastics. Exercises in which light appa- 
ratus, such as bells, clubs, wands, etc., are used. 

Heavy Gymnastics. Exercises on the bars, bucks, 
rings, etc. 

Military Gymnastics. Are those which more especially 
refer to marching and tactics. 

jEsthetic Gymnastics. Are exercises that pertain to 
the beautiful. Delsarte work would be of this character. 
Artistic gymnastics are included under this heading. 

Corrective Gymnastics. Are those which are given for 
curing common physical defects. 

Developing Work. That which is given to build up 
any special part of the body. 

Free, Light, Heavy, Corrective, and Developing work 
are forms of Educational Gymnastics. 

Primary Exercises. Are those in which the member 
of the body directly affected is used. 

Secondary Exercises. Are those which bring into 
action other parts of the body than the one to be es- 
pecially developed. 

A Simple Exercise. Is one calling into action one part 
of the body. 

A Double Exercise. Is one where two parts of the 
body are used in the same direction. 

A Compound Exercise. Is made with one or more 
members of the body in the same or different directions. 



INTRODUCTION. 15 

Common Base. Heels touching, toes turned out at 
an angle of about 60°. 

Narrow Base. Heels and toes touching. 

Wide Base. Feet separated from four to eighteen 
inches. 

Hips Firm. Hands on the hips. 

Neck Firm. Hands touching back of neck. 

Letter "y." See page 139. 

When the arms are held shoulder high to the side, or 
out, the palm of the hand may be down, to the front, or 
up. The term that we use for the first position, viz., 
Arms out, and palm of the hand down, is, Arms out, a. 
If the palm of the hand is turned to the front, we would 
say, Arms out, 6. If the palm is up, the position is de- 
scribed as Arms out, c. In the same way we describe 
the position of the arms when front or up. These terms 
can also be applied to the exercises taken with the dumb 
bells. 



CHAPTER I. 

OPINIONS OF EDUCATORS ON EDUCATION. 

There is not at the present time any work in the 
English language chiefly devoted to methods of teach- 
ing gymnastics. There are numerous publications on the 
art or the science of teaching mental branches, but noth- 
ing on the subject of bodily training. The teacher is a 
teacher, whether she molds the body or mind, and it is 
very necessary that every instructor understand some of 
the principles of imparting knowledge to others. One 
who drills a class of children in the Sunday-school should 
know how to teach. The person placed in charge of a 
large gymnasium must each day instruct pupils and im- 
part knowledge. Of two teachers who have the same 
amount of material to use, the one who understands the 
art of teaching will produce the best and quickest re- 
sults. 

For nearly ten years it has been the good fortune of 
the author to be called upon to teach teachers, both in 
summer and winter normal classes of gymnastics. These 
lessons have been given in many parts of the United 
States and in portions of Canada. During this time there 
has been ample opportunity to study the methods used 
by many of the physical directors of both sexes. One 
would be surprised at the variety of plans or ways 

16 



OPINIONS OF EDUCATORS ON EDUCATION. 17 

adopted by these teachers, a majority of whom are special- 
ists in their work. True, some of them have gradu- 
ated from teachers' institutes or normal schools devoted 
to mental training, and are consequently acquainted with 
the principles of teaching. A few of this number have 
applied these principles to gymnastics, but the remainder 
of them seem to think that the elements of pedagogy 
are applicable only to mental branches. There are too 
many men and women teaching gymnastics who know 
nothing of the art or science of teaching ; consequently, 
their efforts are greater than they should be, and the re- 
sults of their work are not what they would be if better 
methods were used by them. 

At the present time, when the interest in gymnastics 
is greater than ever before, the market is filled with 
books on physical education. These works contain 
many drills and arrangements of exercises which are 
more or less helpful, but there is no work devoted ex- 
clusively to the science or art of applying principles. 
The object of this manual is to prepare a series of helps 
for the teacher of physical training — a manual that will 
be to her what the work on pedagogy is to the teacher 
of mental branches. The author has made a study of 
the various works by authorities upon the subject, and 
has at times quoted freely from these sources. The in- 
structor who reads one good work on pedagogy will find 
that it contains the gist of many others. 

Whether teaching is a science or an art will not be dis- 
cussed here. It is not of so much importance. There 
will be given in this work a list of good books, in 
which the reader can find chapters pertaining to these 



18 METHODS OF TEACHING GYMNASTICS. 

two questions. That one ought to be a good teacher of 
gymnastics if she teaches at all is true ; that the opinions, 
advice, and experience of others should guide her is 
equally true. A good book may be approved, but if such a 
work is recommended it too often follows that it is never 
read. A few opinions of educators have been culled from 
different sources and are given in this chapter. By this 
plan the teacher does not feel obliged to purchase new 
publications, draw them from the city library, or go to 
any extra trouble to ascertain what others think and 
say. 

A child is taught by one of these three principles : 
perspective faculty, the expressive faculty, the reflective 
faculty. Herbert Spencer says : " Educational systems 
are not made, but grow, and within brief periods growth 
is insensible." This is truly applicable to the teaching 
of gymnastics. There has been a steady growth within 
the last five years, and this growth must continue. Mr. 
Seldon of St. Louis says : " No matter how limited the 
strictly scientific domain of education is considered to be, 
it cannot be denied that there is such a science, and it 
should be mastered before the practical duties of teach- 
ing are assumed." The school-teacher must remember 
that like begets like, and that as she is, so the school will 
be. She must be willing to assume the duties and re- 
sponsibilities of her position. Remember that pupils are 
at school the first day to study the new teacher, not the 
lesson. The author remembers the little school in a 
country town in Illinois, not far from the Mississippi 
River, where he was first called to teach. The first hour 
was the most trying one ; he did not know what to do, 



OPINIONS OF EDUCATORS ON EDUCATION. 19 

what to say, or just what the start should be. The re- 
sult was that the first day's teaching was not satisfac- 
tory to the school-directors nor to the teacher, but it 
seemed to be so to the pupils, because they had a good 
time. It has been said that husbands who start in their 
matrimonial career as lieutenants never receive pro- 
motion, and that a teacher is rarely promoted in the 
school in which she has not earned her position at the 
close of the first day. 

This is just as true of teaching gymnastics as it is of 
teaching the other branches. Professor Bain says : " The 
teaching method is arrived at in various ways. One 
principal mode is experience in the work. This is the 
inductive, or practical course. Another mode is deduc- 
tion from the laws of the human mind. This is the de- 
ductive, or theoretical course. The third and best mode 
is to combine the two, rectify empirical teaching by 
principles, and to qualify deductions from principles by 
practical experience." Mr. J. R. Blackston, one of Her 
Majesty's inspectors of schools in England, says : " The 
least gifted may take heart when he bethinks him that 
success in school management depends mainly on 
watchful and unremitting attention to little details and 
grappling with every difficulty as it arises. It is not 
necessary to decide how much development is possible 
for the human race in time. The question to be settled 
is, Can man be raised to a higher plane, physically, in- 
tellectually, and morally, and may his upward tendency 
become stronger and more controlling as he advances? " 

The art of school-teaching, or teaching gymnastics, 
consists in the skilful application of the great body of 



20 METHODS OF TEACHING GYMNASTICS. 

rules and methods deduced from science, observation, 
experience, and practice. Dr. Dickinson says : " Suc- 
cessful teaching is the product of knowledge, skill, and 
experience. The teacher must have a good knowledge 
of the facts he is to teach, of the sciences which rest upon 
them, and of the end to be secured by school-work. He 
must have skill in applying his method, or he will fail 
to awaken right ideas, or he will do for the pupil what 
the pupil should do for himself, or he will talk too much, 
or teach what is not worth knowing. He must have 
experience, or he will be liable to violate all the princi- 
ples of good teaching in attempting to apply them." 
Mill says : " The discipline that does good to the 
mind is that in which the mind is active and not pass- 
ive. The secret of developing the faculties is to give 
them much to do and much inducement to do it." In a 
conversation with Professor Hughes of Canada, at 
Chautauqua, during the season of 1892, he said, after 
watching the classes for an hour : " My criticism of the 
present method of teaching gymnastics would be that 
the teacher does too much for the scholars, while the 
pupils merely imitate or copy." Would not gymnastics 
produce better results if they were so planned and so 
taught that the scholar would not only think, but would 
act, depending upon himself? The Swedes claim that 
this is one of the strong arguments in favor of their 
system of physical education. It is not well for the 
teacher to do too much for the scholar, neither is it wise 
to always lead or give too many commands. Pupils will 
soon form the habit of depending entirely upon the 
leader. 



OPINIONS OF EDUCATORS ON EDUCATION. 21 

The teacher must be fit for more than the thing she 
has to do. " If she is not too large for the place, she is 
too small for it." The teacher should appreciate the 
value of a general knowledge, and understand that much 
of her success depends upon the study of the child or of 
the pupil. Too little attention is paid to this part of the 
education of the teacher. She seems to fall into a habit, 
or, as has been said, " to get into a rut." It is hard to 
change habits that have been formed by years of prac- 
tice and experience. The one who notices and studies 
will be better able to instruct children, to deal with 
them, than one who is satisfied to stand before the class, 
give a cut-and-dried lesson, and who has not at the end 
of each day learned or taught something new. 

There is no question about the value of methods of 
teaching in gymnastics. The teacher should begin at 
the beginning ; but the question arises, What is the be- 
ginning? In the first place, the teacher should under- 
stand why gymnastics are taught. 

The reader will notice that most of the advice is given 
as if to those who are in the habit of teaching children. 
This is so. The teacher of a child is more apt to be able 
to instruct adults than the instructor of adults to teach 
children. 

It is an axiom in the art of teaching that it is what 
the child does for himself and by himself, under wise 
guidance, that educates him. Tyndall says : " The ex- 
ercise of the mind, like that of the body, depends for its 
value upon the spirit in which it is accomplished. The 
child should be told as little as possible, but induced to 
discover as much as possible." The unskilled teacher 



22 METHODS OF TEACHING GYMNASTICS. 

blunders along as if the great educators Mill, Spencer, 
Froebel, and Pestalozzi had never lived. He recognizes 
no educational authority but himself. He teaches in 
the good old way handed down by imitation from the 
past, and is a. law unto himself. Carlyle says: "My 
teachers were hidebound pedants, without knowledge of 
man's nature or of boys', or of aught save lexicons." 
This rule applies forcibly to teachers of gymnastics, to 
those liable to be placed in the list mentioned by Carlyle. 

As is the teacher, so is the school — a maxim that has 
been often quoted from John Phil brick, the ex-superin- 
tendent of the Boston schools. The teacher should 
avoid recasting everything in the mold of his own ideas. 
He is in danger of overestimating his powers, because 
he is seldom questioned in his assertions, the child is 
not given an opportunity to discuss, arguing does not 
take place. 

Attention is called to some of the main principles of 
Ratich. With a few modifications they represent the 
views of that band of educational innovators who came 
into the field at his time and later. Among them we 
find Comenius, Locke, Rousseau, Basedow, Pestalozzi, 
Froebel, and Jacotot. The principles which will be of 
assistance to the teacher of gymnastics are these : 

First. Everything after the order and course of 
nature, for everything unnaturaL, violent, and forced is 
hurtful, both in teaching and learning, and in fact en- 
feebles nature. 

Second. One thing at a time, for nothing hinders the 
exercise of the understanding more than the attempt to 
grasp many things at once. 



OPINIONS OF EDUCATORS ON EDUCATION. 23 

Third. One thing again and again repeated. What 
is often repeated is clearly and profoundly conceived of 
by the understanding, for it is incredible what can be 
accomplished by the frequent repetition of one thing. 

Fourth. Everything without coercion, for through 
coercion and blows children learn to hate study. 

Fifth. Nothing is learned by rote, for in learning 
by rote the attention is fixed on the words and not on 
the ideas ; but if a thing is thoroughly grasped by the 
understanding the memory retains it without further 
trouble. 

Sixth. Uniformity of plan in all things, for this is a 
help to the understanding. There must be plan, method, 
and system. 

Seventh. Everything through experimental analysis, 
for bare authority is of no value in the absence of cause 
and reason. 

These are some of the principles of Ratich. This rep- 
resentative of the education of the innovators believed 
that his plans would produce the best results ; he aimed 
especially at making education a real development and 
training of the mind, while the development of the bod- 
ily powers was also put forward as an important object. 

" Froebel is the first teacher to whom it has occurred 
to convert what is usually considered the waste steam of 
childish activities and energies into the means of fruit- 
ful action ; to utilize what has hitherto been looked upon 
as unworthy of notice, and, moreover, to accomplish this 
object, not only without repressing the naturally free 
spirit of childhood, but by making that free spirit the 
very instrument of his purpose." "At the same time 



24 METHODS OF TEACHING GYMNASTICS. 

the bodily powers — hands, feet, muscles, senses — under 
the influence and impulse of companionship, are more 
actively exercised, and the health of the constitution 
thereby promoted, while a larger and better opportunity 
is supplied for learning the resources of the mother 
tongue.' ' (That is, when the children are gathered in a 
kindergarten.) Payne pictures Froebel watching a group 
of children at play, and reaching this conclusion : 
11 Such, then, appear to be the manifold meanings of the 
boundless spontaneous activity that I witness. But 
what name, after all, must I give to the totality of the 
phenomena exhibited before me? I must call them 
play. Play, then, is spontaneous activity ending in the 
satisfaction of the natural desire of the child for pleas- 
ure — for happiness. Play is the natural, the appropriate 
business and occupation of the child left to his own re- 
sources. The child that does not play is not a perfect 
child. He wants something — sense, organ, limb, or gen- 
erally what we imply by the term health — to make up 
our ideal of a child. The healthy child plays — plays con- 
tinually — cannot but play. .... I see that these 
children delight in movement ; they are always walking 
or running, jumping, hopping, tossing their limbs about, 
and, moreover, they are pleased with rhythmical move- 
ment. I can contrive motives and means for the same 
exercise of the limbs, which shall result in increased 
physical power, and consequently health — shall train 
the children to a conscious and measured command of 
their bodily functions, and at the same time be accom- 
panied by the attraction of rhythmical sound through 
song or instrument." 



OPINIONS OF EDUCATORS ON EDUCATION. 25 

A few lines from this famous teacher are quoted not 
so much for the benefit of the pupil as for that of the 
teacher herself. Any one giving lessons in physical 
training will be benefited by carefully considering the 
advice which may be found in the method of universal 
instruction. Payne sums up the principles of Jacotot, in 
part, when he represents him as saying : "I am to be 
the guide and friend, not the bearer, of my pupil. The 
journey we are to make together he must make on his 
own legs, not mine. 'Use legs and have legs, 7 that is 
the maxim for our practice ; not use mine that he may 
gain the free use of his own ; but so use his own now, 
that by labor and discipline they may become strong, 
robust, and well developed, and thus be prepared for the 
ensuing journey of life. In brief, (1) learn ; (2) repeat ; 
(3) reflect ; (4) verify. This is the method of Jacotot — 
of the Universal Instruction." 

Writing of Dr. Arnold, of Rugby, Payne says : u The 
bright example of excellence in the personal character or 
the work of a successful teacher ought to be, must be, 
operative on the character and work of every teacher who 
carefully and admiringly studies it. In the case before 
us, what ought to have taken place has taken place, for 
it is beyond a doubt that Arnold's life as an educator has 
greatly influenced the professional lives of other educa- 
tors How important this is must be acknowl- 
edged by the personal experience of every teacher now 
before me, for it is not merely what we do, but what we 
by our example cause others to do, that really defines 
our power. Every one of us is continually, though quite 
unconsciously, photographing his characteristic features 



26 METHODS OF TEACHING GYMNASTICS. 

on the minds of those around him, with a force propor- 
tioned to the light upon the object and the proper action 
of the receiving surface." 

Speaking of Pestalozzi, Mr. Payne says : "In spite, 
then, of his patent disqualification in many respects for 
the task he undertook, in spite of his ignorance of even 
common subjects — for he spoke, read, wrote, and ciphered 
badly, and knew next to nothing of classics or science — 
in spite of his want of worldly wisdom, of any per- 
ception and exact knowledge of men and of things, in 
spite of his being merely an elementary teacher ; through 
the force of his all-conquering love, the nobility of his 
heart, the resistless energy of his enthusiasm, his firm 
grasp of a few first principles, his eloquent exposition of 
them in words, his resolute manifestation of them in 
deeds, he stands forth among educational reformers as 
the man whose influence on education is wider, deeper, 
more penetrating than that of all the rest — the prophet 
and sovereign of the domain in which he lived and 
labored." 

Pedagogy and Education. " Many writers still con- 
found pedagogy with education. There is more than a 
shade of difference between these two terms. Pedagogy, 
so to speak, is the theory of education, and education 
the practice of pedagogy. Just as one may be a rhetor- 
ician without being an orator, so one may be a peda- 
gogue — that is, may have a thorough knowledge of the 
rules of education— without being an educator— without 
having practical skill in the training of children." — 
Payne. 

Compayre uses the terms pedagogy and pedagogue in 



OPINIONS OF EDUCATORS ON EDUCATION. 27 

the senses given. A writer who discusses educational 
questions from the theoretical point of view is a peda- 
gogue, and his treatise is a work on pedagogy ; while a 
man who directs educational affairs without actually 
teaching, as a superintendent of public instruction or of 
schools, is an educator. Education in its theoretical or 
scientific aspect is pedagogy, while in its practical aspect, 
or in its art phase, it is educational. 

The Relation of Pedagogy to Psychology. As the 
physician ought to know the organs of the body which 
he treats, and their functions, the farmer the nature of 
the soil he cultivates, the sculptor the qualities of the 
marble he chisels and of the clay which he kneads, so 
the teacher cannot do without the knowledge of the 
laws of the mental organization. 

11 In truth, the rules for teaching are but the laws of 
psychology applied, transformed into practical maxims, 
and tested by experience. Psychology is the basis of all 
the practical sciences which have to do with the moral 
faculties of man ; but the other sciences which are de- 
rived from psychology treat of but certain energies of 
the human soul — logic of thought, aesthetics, of the 
sentiment of the beautiful, ethics of the soul. Pedagogy 
alone embraces all faculties of the soul, and should put 
under contribution the whole of psychology." — Payne. 

"The purpose of education is to give to the body and 
soul all the beauty and all the perfection of which they 
are capable."— Plato. 

" Education is the development in man of all the per- 
fection which his nature permits." — Kant. 

"To educate a child is to put him in a condition to 



28 METHODS OF TEACHING GYMNASTICS. 

fulfil as perfectly as possible the purpose of his life."— 
De Saussure. 

11 Education includes whatever we do for ourselves and 
whatever is done for us by others for the express pur- 
pose of bringing us nearer to the perfection of our 
nature. ' ' — Mill. 

"Education is preparation for complete living." — 
Herbert Spencer. 

" Education is at once the art and the science of guid- 
ing the young and of putting them in a condition, by 
the aid of instruction, through the power of emulation 
and good example, to obtain the triple good assigned to 
man by his religious, social, and national destination." 
— Niemeyer. 

11 Education is the harmonious development of the 
physical, intellectual, and moral faculties." — Denzel. 

11 Education is the process by which one mind forms an- 
other mind, and one heart another heart." — Jules Simon. 

"Education is the sum of the intentional actions by 
means of which man attempts to raise his fellows to 
perfection. " — Marion. 

" Education is the sum of the efforts whose purpose is 
to give to man the complete possession and correct use 
of his different faculties." — Joly. 

11 The end of education is to render the individual as 
much as possible an instrument of happiness to him- 
self, and hence to other beings." — Mill. 

"Education is the art of bringing up children and of 
forming men." — Rousseau. 

Chauvet says : " Whoever undertakes the education 
of another should begin by completing his own." 



CHAPTER II. 

OPINIONS OF EDUCATORS ON PHYSICAL EDUCATION. 

Our young teachers are frequently called upon to 
argue in favor of physical training. They are made to 
feel that their own opinions do not carry enough weight 
and that the reasoning of modern educators is not suf- 
ficiently cogent. A few pages are therefore set aside for 
the opinions of some of the world's greatest teachers. It 
is gratifying that these expressions are favorable to 
rational gymnastics. 

The teacher is urged to read Spencer on education ; his 
writings on this and other phases of training are inspir- 
ing. The author has looked through the history of edu- 
cation, going as far back as the Greeks, and has selected a 
few opinions from the representatives of different schools. 

Physical Training Among the Greeks. The following 
passage, which is taken from Xenophon's Memorabilia, 
quoted by Professor Mahaffy, will give the teacher an 
idea of the value which was placed upon the care of the 
body by this wonderful nation. The teacher who is 
anxious to read the entire quotation, together with 
others, is referred to the work of Professor Mahaffy. 
Socrates meets a young man, one of his friends, and see- 
ing that he is in poor bodily condition, reproves him. 
Among other things, he says : " Moreover, these things 
[i. e., the care of the body] are not to be neglected in 

29 



30 METHODS OF TEACHING GYMNASTICS. 

private life because the state does not happen to be en- 
gaged publicly in warlike operations. They require, on 
the other hand, no less attention in times of peace. I 
would have you know that neither in any other struggle 
nor in any kind of practical life, will you get on worse 
because you have brought your body into good condition, 
for the body is useful in all pursuits which men engage 
in, in all matters in which the body is useful it is of great 
importance to have it in the best possible condition. 
And even in those things in which you may think the 
body is less useful, namely, in intellectual pursuits, who 
does not know that, even in these, many men fall into 
great aberrations through not possessing good bodily 
health? Nay, weakness of memory, low spirits, ill tem- 
per, even insanity, often penetrate the minds of many 
persons so deeply, through their bad physical condition, 
as to cast out and dispossess knowledge itself. There is 
a great security, on the other hand, for those whose 
bodies are in good condition. They run no risk of suffer- 
ing any such evils through a low physical condition. 
Rather it is natural that good bodily health conduces to 
the very contrary of those evils which arise from bad 
health. What is there that any reasonable man may 
not undergo for the sake of securing the opposite of these 
evils which I have spoken of? It is disgraceful that any 
one, through want of attention to these matters, should 
grow old without seeing what sort of a man he can be- 
come by making his body as well developed and robust 
as possible, and this no one can know who does not pay 
proper attention to these things, for they do not come of 
their own accord and unsought." 



OPINIONS ON PHYSICAL EDUCATION. 31 

I have quoted at length from the old philosopher, be- 
cause I wish to speak of the physical condition of the 
Greeks themselves. One who has made a study of the 
history of education will be impressed with the fact that 
the greatest and most successful nations in the world 
have been those who have regularly cared for the body. 
Not much is known of the early Chinese, Indian, Egyp- 
tian, and Persian education, although we may learn more 
of the Jewish education by looking into the history of 
this people. It is not until we pass on to Greek educa- 
tion that we find the most splendid types of high intel- 
lectual order that the world has ever produced. 

The first duty of the Greek boy was to learn his let- 
ters, which was coincident with learning to swim; so 
that we hear the saying: " 'One who knows neither 
swimming nor his letters ' was the Greek term for an 
ignoramus." At the age of fourteen the Greek boy 
would have begun to devote himself to the practice of 
athletics. The ardor shown in their pursuit by both the 
Greeks and the Romans is often used as an argument for 
our devotion to these sports at the present time. There 
is no doubt that this double attention to the welfare of 
the body caused the Greeks to become " the most beauti- 
ful, as well as the most gifted of mankind." 

The Greeks, while they prized athletic distinction, did 
not hold the professional athlete in high honor. Eurip- 
ides denounced the race of athletes in strong language. 
The enthusiasm shown by Homer and Pindar for bodily 
strength had become weaker in the days of Pericles. 
Gymnastics and music were closely associated. It has 
been said that if a Greek youth had by continuous prac- 



32 METHODS OF TEACHING GYMNASTICS. 

tice become stronger than a bull, more truthful than the 
godhead, wiser than the most learned Egyptian priest, 
his fellow-citizens would shrug their shoulders at him 
in contempt if he did not possess what a series of gym- 
nastics and music alone can give — a sense of gracefulness 
and proportion. Plato wished that the years from seven- 
teen to twenty could be devoted to athletics as a prepara- 
tion for the art of war. The first part of the translation 
quoted above, in which Socrates discusses the subject 
with his friends, was devoted to the preparation for war, 
and not for peace. 

Aristotle made his order of education, first bodily, sec- 
ond morally, third scientific. He says : " First in educa- 
tion will come gymnastics ; but this is intended to make 
men athletes, not to develop brute force. It is to pro- 
duce courage, which is a mean between the unbridled 
wildness of the animal and the sluggishness of the cow- 
ard. Too much weight must not be given to athletics, 
lest the child be spoiled ; body and mind must not be 
hard worked at the same time. Gymnastics are only re- 
garded as a preparation for the education of the soul. 
This is greatly assisted by music." To-day our young 
men make gymnastic ability the end itself, and not the 
means. 

Roman and Early Christian Education. The Roman 
education was, in distinction from that of the Athenian, 
eclectic. This term "eclectic" was used then and is used 
now, and is an epithet which in itself denotes " chosen 
from others," and is therefore not original and self 
derived. "It is the very mark or stamp of a practical 
mind to gather from every quarter that which will aid 



OPINIONS ON PHYSICAL EDUCATION. 33 

its own purposes ; therefore, if its own resources are in- 
sufficient or unsuitable, to avail itself freely of the re- 
sources of others. The Romans have been reproached, 
and justly, with a want of originality in thinking, but 
they cannot be reproached with indifference to the orig- 
inality of others." 

A statement has been made by a well-known gymnas- 
tic instructor derogatory to the teacher who chooses the 
best from every system. I must take issue with the one 
who makes this statement. In the first place, he cer- 
tainly could not expect us to choose that which was not 
good in any system. He must know that the American 
people are independent, original, and ingenious enough 
to ultimately create a system ; that they are some- 
what like the Romans, and will borrow from others ; 
that they will never adopt bodily the system of gym- 
nastics recommended by the Germans, Swedes, or the 
authors of Delsartism ; and that they will mold their 
views and their opinions by the experience, advice, and 
wisdom of others. Therefore, I say to the young teacher 
of gymnastics, until this time comes you are to take the 
best from other systems ; certainly not the worst, nor 
even the parts that are fairly good. 

In finishing the chapter devoted to Greek and Roman 
education, let me quote from Browning, who says, in 
his educational theories : " The Greek and Roman 
ideals are the complement of each other. On the one 
side, man, beautiful, active, clever, receptive, emotional, 
quick to feel and to show his feeling, to argue, to refine ; 
greedy of the pleasures of the world, if a little neglect- 
ful of its duties, fearing restraint as an unjust stinting 



84 METHODS OF TEACHING GYMNASTICS. 

of the bounty of nature, inquiring into every secret, 
strongly attached to the things of this life but elevated 
by an unabated striving after the highest ideal. On the 
other side, man, practical, energetic, eloquent, tinged 
but not imbued with philosophy, trained to spare neither 
himself nor others, reading and thinking only with an 
apology, .... best engaged in leading armies 
through unexplored deserts, establishing roads, fortresses, 
settlements, as the results of conquest, or in ordering 
and superintending the slow, certain, and utter anni- 
hilation of every enemy of Rome. Has the Christian 
world ever surpassed this type ? Can we produce any- 
thing by education in modern times, except by combin- 
ing, blending, and modifying the self-culture of the 
Greek and the self-sacrifice of the Romans ? " 

During the age of chivalry, which followed the Roman 
education, attention was paid to a curriculum of seven 
sciences. The young squire had his own seven accom- 
plishments to learn, viz. : reading, swimming, shooting 
with the bow, boxing, hunting, chess-playing, and 
verse-making. It will be seen from this that attention 
was paid to outdoor sports, and something to the care of 
the body. 

The Reformers. It will be well to mention one or two 
of the reformers who paid strict attention to the care of 
the body and who were at the same time molders of the 
modern education. Luther would have things, as well 
as words, taught in the school — mathematics, history, 
logic, gymnastics, and music. "Music," he says, "is 
the best of all the arts. It dispels the sorrow of the 
breast. If a schoolmaster does not know music I have 



OPINIONS ON PHYSICAL EDUCATION. 35 

nothing to say to him. Music is a beautiful, divine gift 
of God, and next to theology." Luther, in his own 
teaching, closely associates music with gymnastics. 

Another of the great reformers was Trotzendorf, rector 
of the school at Goldberg. In his teaching he was care- 
ful to promote the physical education by gymnastic ex- 
ercises. He allowed his boys to run and wrestle in the 
playground, praised the successful, blamed the bunglers, 
and yet made a special law forbidding them to bathe in 
the summer or go upon the ice in the winter and to di- 
vert themselves with snowballing. This seems incon- 
sistent, and indicated the prevailing defective views at 
that time upon the subject of physical training. Mel- 
ancthon says that Trotzendorf was as much born to drill 
a school as Scipio Africanus to drill an army. If, in the 
opinion of such a man as Melancthon, he was compe- 
tent, we may connect the care of the body with the suc- 
cess that his scholars attained. 

Montaigne says : "I would have the youth's outward 
behavior and mien and the disposition of his limbs 
formed at the same time with his mind. It is not a soul, 
it is not a body, that we are training up, but a man, and 
we ought not to divide him." 

The views of Locke on physical education will be in- 
teresting because, with few exceptions, they are in accord 
with the rules for athletic training at the present day. 
He was a partisan of what was then called, and is now 
frequently termed, the " hardening system" ; but, as 
another author has tersely put it, some of his plans 
would very soon harden many out of the world. > His 
precepts for physical training do not seriously conflict 



36 METHODS OF TEACHING GYMNASTICS. 

with the modern practice of hygiene, except in one or 
two matters about which he had peculiar notions or, as 
the modern phrase is, fads. His views may be summed 
up in this paragraph, taken from Mr. Quick : 

11 And thus I have done with what concerns the body 
and life, which reduces itself to these few and easily ob- 
served rules : plenty of open air, exercise, and sleep, 
plain diet, no wine or strong drink, and very little or 
no physic, not too warm or strait clothing, especially the 
head and feet kept cool, and the feet often used to cold 
water and exposed to wet.' 7 Here the only point open 
to criticism is the strange notion of keeping the chil- 
dren's feet cold and wet, which would now be considered 
a dangerous blunder. 

Rousseau says that there are two important points to 
be kept in mind ; the first, that to teach children wisely 
and efficiently we must know child nature ; the second, 
that without such knowledge we cannot really sympa- 
thize with that nature. He says : "Exercise, therefore, 
not only the physical strength but also the senses that 
direct it, make the best possible use of each, and verify 
the impressions of one by those of another. To learn to 
think, therefore, we should learn to exercise our limbs, 
senses, organs, since these are the instruments of our in- 
telligence, and in order to make the best use of these in- 
struments it is necessary that the body which produced 
them should be robust and healthy. Thus, so far is a 
sound instinct from being independent of the body that 
it is owing to a good constitution that the operations of 
the mind are effected with ease and certainty." 

The naturalist Rabelais lays great stress upon physical 



OPINIONS ON PHYSICAL EDUCATION. 37 

exercise. The list of physical exercises which Gargantua 
was called upon to perform is given with the usual en- 
thusiasm of this author. Of the chief points upon which 
Rabelais insists, viz., the teaching through the senses, 
independence of thought, training for practical life, 
equal development of mind and body, general treatment, 
and improved methods, the last three are in close touch 
with physical or bodily training. 

According to Milton, the first step in the education of 
pupils is to make them "despise and scorn all their 
childish and ill-taught qualities, to delight in manly and 
liberal exercises, to infuse into their young hearts such 
ingenious and noble ardor as will not fail to make many 
of them renowned and matchless men." It will be 
noticed also that with Milton, amusement, emulation, 
bodily skill, cheerfulness of bright companionship, are 
all associated with physical training. He recommended 
"the art of the sword, to guard, to strike safely with 
edge or point, to practice in all the locks and grips of 
wrestling, which exercises will keep pupils healthy, 
strong, and well in breath. It is also the likeliest means 
to make them grow large, tall, and to inspire them with 
a gallant and fearless courage." 

"Physical training and drill should be a part of the 
regular business of school. There is no real difficulty 
about teaching the drill and the simpler kinds of gym- 
nastics. If something of the kind is not done, the 
physique which has been and still is, on the whole, a 
grand one, will become in the great towns as extinct as 
a dodo."— Huxley. 

"Play is the development of the human mind in its 



38 METHODS OF TEACHING GYMNASTICS. 

first effort to make acquaintance with the outward 
world. ' '— Froebel. 

11 No perfect brain ever crowns an imperfectly devel- 
oped body."— Clark. 

Let the teacher of gymnastics take a lesson from the 
few words of this great teacher of children, the cham- 
pion of the kindergarten. If Froebel's success was due 
to his knowledge of the human nature of the child and 
the turning of his work into play, the teacher of gym- 
nastics should make use of this principle. 

11 Health is wealth." — Emerson. 

11 Gymnastic exercises give grace and beauty to the 
body, and good training to the mind."— Dickinson. 

"The cold, formal, precise, unsympathetic teacher 
should never set foot on the playground. An owl fright- 
ens singing birds. The only teachers who succeed well 
in drilling children in calisthenics, gymnastics, or games, 
are those who can enter into the spirit of girlhood or 
boyhood. ' ' — S wett. 

A Quotation from a Program of French Instruction. 
"The purpose of physical education is not merely to 
furnish the body and strengthen the constitution of the 
child, by placing him in the most favorable hygienic 
conditions, but it should also give him, at an early age, 
qualities of deftness and agility with manual dexterity, 
and with promptness and certainty of mind ; which, 
valuable for every one, are more particularly necessary 
for pupils in the common schools, the most of whom 
are destined for manual occupations." 

11 Gymnastics do not labor merely for the future, by 
enlarging and strengthening the chest, by giving supple- 



OPINIONS ON PHYSICAL EDUCATION. 39 

ness to the limbs, and by contributing to the health of 
the child. Exercise acts immediately upon the state of 
the body, whose forces it renews, and upon the nervous 
system, which it tempers. It has a happy effect upon 
studies, because it reestablishes the equilibrium in the 
organism, and at the same time gives the mind more 
vigor and elasticity. Gymnastics, like play, take the 
child wearied, enfeebled by study and cerebral effort, 
and restore him to intellectual labor refreshed and ac- 
tive ; but it will do this on one condition — that we can 
never pass the limit beyond which fatigue has begun. An 
excessive exercise of the body makes the mind inert, while 
moderate exercise reanimates and refreshes.' ' — Payne. 

Play. Herbert Spencer says: "Happiness is the 
most powerful of tonics. By accelerating the circula- 
tion of the blood, it facilitates the performance of every 
function, and so tends alike to increase health when it 
exists, and to restore it when it is lost. Hence the essen- 
tial superiority of play in gymnastics. 

" Play in the open air, which invites to jump, to run 
without interruption, to shout at the top of the voice ; 
which causes the blood to circulate vigorously and to 
give color to the cheeks — this is the agent, of all others, 
for physical development. The English and the Amer- 
icans well know this, and we have play as a national 
institution." 

Froebel says: "We should not consider play as a 
frivolous thing. On the contrary, it is a thing of pro- 
found signification. By means of play the child expands 
in joy as the flower expands when it proceeds from the 
bud, for joy is the soul of all the actions of that age." 



CHAPTEE III. 

THE ETHICAL ELEMENT IN PHYSICAL TRAINING. 

Teachers of gymnastics, or " physical educators," as 
they are sometimes called, do not hold the same opinions 
regarding the results of their training, the systems they 
should use, or the methods they should adopt. There 
are in their profession several "schools," each of which 
has among its adherents many who are so prejudiced in 
favor of their own faction that they do not carefully in- 
vestigate the principles underlying the other schools, or 
make an honest effort to be fair and just in expressing 
their opinions. 

There is jealousy among the representatives of the 
various gymnastic systems in America, but it can be said 
that this feeling exists in all professions and schools. It 
therefore does not follow that, because we are gymnasts, 
we need the great ethical element of charity more than 
others, or that physical education fails to create a feeling 
of brotherly love. Because of the different opinions ex- 
pressed by the members of our profession we are, obvi- 
ously, not unanimous in our views, and as we do not yet 
agree upon the same results accruing from each sys- 
tem, it may be well to present the objects or aims of 
the Swedish, German, Delsarte, and "so-called " Ameri- 
can systems of physical training. By doing this the 
ethical element in physical training can be determined 

40 



ETHICAL ELEMENT IN PHYSICAL TRAINING. 41 

as well by the authorities on moral philosophy as by the 
physical educators. Rational physical training is yet 
new in the United States, and we are not sure that the 
results of which we speak will follow. The ethical ele- 
ment has been discussed but little in our schools. In 
short, ethics is not, though it should be, taught, in our 
normal training schools of gymnastics. 
The general plan of this chapter is this : 

1. Ascertain what is meant by the terms physical 
training ; physical education ; gymnastics ; athletics, 
«tc. ; also the objects and aims of the several systems of 
gymnastics. 

2. To find, if possible, what is meant by ethics, and 
so trace the relationship between the two subjects. 

Authorities on the Swedish, German, Delsarte, and 
American methods have been consulted, so that, in 
speaking of the aims of these institutions, the author's 
statements are based upon their expressed opinions. 

Definition. — Dr. E. M. Hartwell, the American au- 
thority on physical education, in his "Provisional 
Schematic Study of Leading Topics," says : 

" Physical Education as an Expression. 

" A. The term is used in : 

" (1) A vaguely general, uncritical, and popular 
sense, when it means too much, being made to include 
matters that belong to personal and school hygiene ; e. 
g. : bathing, diet, dress, seating of pupils, ventilation. 

" (2) A semi-general sense, signifying exercise for the 
sake of health or recreation or the prevention of mis- 
chief, when it means too little, though it is generally so 
used by school boards and educators. 



42 METHODS OF TEACHING GYMNASTICS.. 

'- (3) A strictly scientific sense, based on a critical con- 
sideration of demonstrable physiological and psycholog- 
ical effects and relations. Its general and special scientific 
significations should be distinguished and determined. 

U B. Synonymous terms, e.g.: physical training; bodily 
exercise. 

a C. Non-synonymous terms, e. g.: physical culture; 
movement cure ; society gymnastics ; Deisarte exercises. 

" Physical Education as a Department of Science. 

" A. The essential, universal, necessary factor in all 
forms of physical training is neuro-muscular exercise. It 
should be critically considered in respect to : 

11 (a) Its nature and effects : (1) Bodily ; (2) Mental. 

11 (6) Its aims, which may be : (1) Recreative ; (2) 
Hygienic ; (3) Educative ; (4) Remedial. 

" (c) Its results, which are : (1) Anatomical ; (2) Phys- 
iological ; (3) Mental ; (4) Moral. 

"B. As a branch of hygeine. Physical training serves 
to promote the normal growth and development of : 

" (1) The master tissues and organs; i. e., muscles, 
nerves, and brain. 

11 (2) The purveyor tissues and organs. 

" (3) The scavenger tissues and organs. 

"C. As a pedagogic discipline. Physical training 
helps to develop will and intelligence, i. e., the power to 
know, do, endure, and forbear. 

"It lies at the basis of mental and moral training; 
hence its place should be defined and its value deter- 
mined in relation to the ends and needs of: 

" (1) Somatic or general bodily training; e. g.: in the 
matter of carriage, walking, running, dancing. 



ETHICAL. ELEMENT IN PHYSICAL TRAINING. 43 

14 (2) Language training ; e. </..• singing, gesture, speak- 
ing, for general and special ends. 

" (3) Manual training; e. g.: writing, drawing, and 
the use of tools for educational purposes. 

"(4) Industrial training; for the professional train- 
ing of skilled workmen. 

44 (5) Military training; e. g. : of boys playing at 
soldiers, of militia, soldiers, and sailors. 

11 (6) Normal training ; general and special, in each of 
the chief departments of education, viz. : in elementary, 
secondary, superior, and technical education." 

Thus, according to so eminent an authority, physical 
education as a department of science should be critically 
considered in respect to its results, which are physical, 
mental, and moral, while as pedagogic discipline it helps 
to promote will and intelligence. 

The objects of the Swedish system, as given by Mr. 
Skarstrom of the Chautauqua School of Physical Edu- 
cation, are as follows : 

44 The aim of Swedish gymnastics is to harmoniously 
train and develop all parts of the body, so as to make it 
an efficient and obedient servant or tool of the will, and 
to put it in a condition most favorable for the duties and 
activities of life. In other words, the aim is to improve 
the condition of the individual in a physical, mental, 
and moral sense." 

1. In pedagogical gymnastics, the training and 
strengthening of the respiratory and circulatory func- 
tions is the first consideration, for those are the funda- 
mental functions of the body, and on them depend the 
welfare and efficiency of all other functions. The ex- 



44 METHODS OF TEACHING GYMNASTICS. 

ercises used are such as will train the strength and 
efficiency of the heart and lungs and assist their 
action, and all exercises are excluded that are in any- 
way detrimental to those organs, or that would tend to 
permanently impede their activity. This we might call 
the general hygienic object of pedagogical gymnastics — 
improved nutrition. 

2. The exercises in Swedish pedagogical gymnastics 
tend to correct all faulty and incorrect positions and 
carriage of the body, the results of bad habits of sitting, 
standing, or walking, so common especially during the 
growing age and in school-desk life, and to encourage a 
correct and healthy growth of the spine and thorax, 
and a good position and carriage of the shoulders and 
head. 

3. Besides these elements, there also comes in a purely 
educational feature, a training of the nervous system ; 
for the exercises used are such as to demand exactness 
of muscular coordination, each movement and position 
being defined in every detail ; the aim being to so train 
the body that certain groups of muscles, in response to 
the command of the will, shall by their contraction pro- 
duce a certain movement and nothing else. 

" If to this we add that most of the movements and 
positions are taken in response to a command requiring 
an instantaneous execution on a given signal, and when 
the exercises are serial the rhythm is kept up by the in- 
dividual's own sense of rhythm, it must follow that 
alertness of perception, quickness of action, a keen pos- 
ture sense, a high degree of coordination and power of 
inhibition — in a word, a greater volitional control and a 



ETHICAL ELEMENT IN PHYSICAL TRAINING. 45 

feeling of being master of one's self, will be the result 
of the training. In how far this will affect the higher 
mental qualities, the moral strength, and the general 
character of the individual has not been ascertained." 

Again, the Swedish system works for purity of move- 
ment, also for exactness of coordination, which term 
they sometimes call grace. The aesthetic element in the 
Swedish system has not been fully developed. The 
teachers try to arouse interest in the work, to create 
pleasure, and to exert a cheering influence. They claim 
that the work can be so given that joy and exhilaration 
will result. These same effects are secured partly in 
the German and American schools through the aid of 
music. The Swedish school does not believe in this 
latter plan. 

What are the aims of the German system of gymnas- 
tics ? This question is well answered by Guts Muth in 
his " Gymnastics for the Youth of the Fatherland," 
when he says: "Gymnastics are work in the garb of 
play. Their aim is to maintain the equilibrium between 
body and mind." The following are the aims, in detail, 
as given by the same author : 

{a) A healthy body, lively and energetic. 

(b) Manly ruggedness, gained by contact with and ex- 
posure to the inclemencies of the outer world, and rea- 
sonable and rational training. 

(e) Uniform and symmetrical development of all the 
parts. 

(d) Subtlety and elasticity of body and limbs, in order 
to cope with difficulties and dangers. 

(e) Alertness of all the senses. 



46 METHODS OF TEACHING GYMNASTICS. 

(/) Development and maintenance of a manly courage. 

Thus, German gymnastics aim to educate the muscular 
and nervous systems, the mental faculties, the different 
senses, so far as possible, bringing the different parts of 
the body as much as possible under the influence of the 
will. 

As for the ends and aims sought, they may be divided 
into two classes : the physical, and the mental, psycho- 
logical, and ethical. The physical aims may be briefly 
summed up as follows : health, strength of body and 
limb, uniform and symmetrical build, erectness of body 
and ease of movement, quickness and speed of action, 
exactness and precision, power of endurance, and grace- 
ful and easy carriage. The mental, psychological, and 
ethical aims are : discipline, will power, manliness, 
courage, self-reliance, respect for self and others, pres- 
ence of mind, sense of beauty in form and action, quick- 
ness of thought and perception, and last, but not least, 
love of country — patriotism.* 

The following extract gives some of the principles 
which underlie the ideas of the Delsarte school : "In- 
tegrity of mental action and integrity of moral purpose 
certainly in a degree depend upon integrity of muscle. 
This is shown by the muscles of those who may be called 
mentally and morally irresponsible. The muscles of 
idiots are flaccid, and Charles Dudley Warner tells us 
how an habitual lack of moral integrity is registered in 
the weakened tissues of the body, producing what is 
known as 'criminal muscle.' Gymnastics which pro- 
mote health of body and muscular development are, it is 

* Dr. Schmidt. 



ETHICAL ELEMENT IN PHYSICAL TRAINING. 47 

believed, indirect agencies toward higher ethical con- 
ditions ; while gymnastics psychologically taught, as in 
'Americanized Delsarte Culture,' are direct agencies to- 
ward the development of will, judgment, and character. 
In these psychological gymnastics the correspondence 
between the inner states — mental and moral — and the 
outer physical manifestations, is made the basis of the 
training." * 

To summarize, we find that the objects of the different 
systems of physical training are : better health, better 
physique, grace, self-control, self-reliance, fortitude, cour- 
age, power of endurance, alertness of perception, quick- 
ness of action, higher degree of coordination, muscular 
development, will power, morals. While each school 
does not describe its objects in the same words, it is plain 
that most of the results are common to each, in theory 
if not in practice. There is no American system of 
physical education, but if one is ever made it will be 
built upon sound principles, and its growth will be in- 
fluenced by the experience of the other schools. 

We are not now ready to say that physical training 
will do all that is claimed for it, nor are any of the present 
systems of gymnastics perfect enough to produce all of 
the results mentioned. Visitors at the meetings of the 
American Association for the Advancement of Physical 
Education comment freely on the fact that among those 
present, who represent gymnasia in all parts of the 
country, there are comparatively few well-built men and 
women, while the appearance of health is not so notice- 
able as to call attention to any great difference between 

* Mrs. Emily M. Bishop. 



48 METHODS OF TEACHING GYMNASTICS. 

this gathering of the disciples of health and that of the 
representatives of any other profession. The voices of 
many of those who read papers or spoke, especially of 
the women, are noticeably weak ; while pale, thin faces, 
poor chests, and unevenly developed bodies are not un- 
common. These meetings are, however, gatherings of 
hard-working, hard-thinking, enthusiastic, earnest men 
and women, who come together to learn how to better 
care for the bodies of their pupils. It would be a diffi- 
cult matter to say to which school this or that person 
belongs, and yet each system is represented by delegates 
claiming superior advantages for its methods, but not in 

/ their own cases showing these advantages. It cannot be 
denied, however, that the delegates showed intelligence, 
kindness, self-control, self-reliance; that they were quick 
and accurate in their movements, and seemed possessed 
of more than ordinary will power. The ethical part of 
their training, or the moral results, were more evident 
than the purely physical. 
It is not always necessary that our men and women 

v have typical physiques to possess the desired ethical ele- 
ments. The question for discussion is not, " Does physi- 
cal training produce better physiques, greater strength, 
and a healthier appearance?" but, "Does it educate 
those qualities which are allied to, or are a part 
of, moral philosophy?" Physical training does not 
do for those who are in constant practice all that we 
claim for it, but it does not consequently follow that 
there may not be some day a system that will. The 
ethical element plays a far more important part in our 
present schools of gymnastics than is credited to it or 



ETHICAL ELEMENT IN PHYSICAL TRAINING. 49 

recognized by gymnastic teachers. We are apt to admit 
and pass over too quickly the moral side of physical 
training, and give our attention to other and more at- 
tractive phases — one of which may be the exercises them- 
selves, which are too often considered the end, instead of 
the means. We value physical education, or, for that 
matter, any form of education, for what it does ; not for 
what is said of it. 

In what way does physical education help the morals ? 
In which of the two, gymnastics or athletics, do we find 
the ethical element to a greater degree, and what are 
our reasons for our decisions ? If the physical educators 
are not sure of the results of their efforts, are the moral 
philosophers sufficiently agreed upon the subject of 
ethics to decide the question for us if we present our side 
to the best of our ability ? 

The object of life is the complete development of all 
the moral possibilities of man. These possibilities are 
seven-fold. Man is capable of development physically, 
aesthetically, intellectually, socially, politically, relig- 
iously, and morally. A man who neglects one or more 
of these natures is one-sided, and the man who devel- 
ops each one of these natures nearest to its utmost pos- 
sibility of development comes closer to attaining the 
object of life. 

We know that physical training develops the physical 
possibility in man. Then, if we accept Prof. B. P. 
Bowne's views, the first link between ethics and phys- 
ical training is established. In every system of phys- 
ical training we find aesthetic gymnastics. We may in- 
fer, then, that the second link exists. All gymnastic 



50 METHODS OF TEACHING GYMNASTICS. 

schools admit that the moral training is helped by the 
physical. If this is true we may look for still another 
connection, so that there remains the social, political, 
religious, and intellectual, although it is claimed that 
the intellect is developed through physical training. 
Gymnastics— by this term is meant the work in light 
and free gymnastics and on apparatus like bars, ropes, 
etc. — develops courage, prompt decision, self-control, 
judgment, self-reliance, and fortitude. The dangerous 
part of gymnastic work could not be done without these 
virtues, while the falls, slips, and slight accidents teach 
fortitude. 

Football cannot be played by cowards. The rough 
usage that a young man receives on the field would soon 
cause him to withdraw if he lacks, what is very essential 
in this popular game, "sand," which is another name 
for " will. 7 ' It is only necessary to examine the scarred 
bodies of our football players to know that they must 
bear pain like stoics. The game develops fortitude and 
courage, great self-control, quick judgment, prompt 
action, and endurance. In athletics we find the need of 
endurance, good judgment, and prompt action. 

In all gymnastics and athletics, if we want the best 
results we must obey a cardinal rule, which is, "Be 
good." The strict laws of training in athletics and 
gymnastics forbid every kind of vice. They demand 
the very best care of the body, which is looked upon as 
a clean, well-tempered instrument governed by a strong 
will. No form of immorality will be tolerated, while 
smoking, or even carrying a pipe in the mouth, is for- 
bidden. At the training; table the choicest and most 



ETHICAL ELEMENT IN PHYSICAL TRAINING. 51 

strengthening food is served. The conversation is of a 
healthful kind. Profanity is not allowed. 

The athletes avoid company that will tempt them to 
violate these moral laws. They eat, sleep, and live by 
themselves. They admit by word and deed that their 
success depends upon their moral habits as much as upon 
the regular physical training. It is true that for some 
of the representatives of the crews, teams, and nines 
training is a necessary evil, and in their cases there is 
often a relapse after the season is over, but this does not 
detract from the weight of the argument that to succeed 
in athletics one must lead a strictly moral life. 

The morale of a team depends, to a great extent, upon 
the captain, but he is generally careful about the ex- 
ample he sets. One outside of college and preparatory 
school life knows little of the influence which the cap- 
tain exerts over most undergraduates. They seek his 
society and while with him obey the unwritten Jaws. 
Many of the associates of athletes copy their ways of 
living ; their habits and customs are discussed and imi- 
tated by boys in preparatory and secondary schools. 
It is true that the betting habit is an evil, but this is 
practiced mostly by those not connected with athletics 
and gymnastics. 

The consensus of opinion is that the moral tone of the 
athletes is above that of other undergraduates. A Yale 
man remarks that the habit of training required on the 
baseball field clung to him after leaving college, so that 
he was able to discontinue smoking by its aid. An Am- 
herst man states that of the fourteen men on his victori- 
ous football team of 1892, eight were of exceptionally high 



52 METHODS OF TEACHING GYMNASTICS. 

moral character. In the 1891 team the moral tone was 
even higher. He also insists that the average moral 
character of Amherst athletes is above that of the under- 
graduates of the same college. A Williams athlete 
makes a similar statement. Cowan, the famous Prince- 
ton football player, has made the statement that the 
backbone of their team was made up of moral men, 
while the reputation of Stagg, Williams, Heffelnnger, 
and others bears testimony to these statements. This is 
evidence from athletes themselves. 

Our best amateur and professional gymnasts bear wit- 
ness also to the truth of these statements. The pro- 
fessional gymnast is moral in many cases because it is a 
means to an end, and that end is — cash. He has never 
heard of the utilitarian or intuitional schools of ethics. 
He does right because it brings him the greatest happi- 
ness, namely, a big salary. Consequently his living is 
right because it brings him happiness, according to the 
"goods ethics." On the other hand, to do right because 
it is right is nothing to him, so that duty ethics would 
play no part in his life. We have found that the young 
man who has trained his body either by athletics or 
gymnastics has a far greater control over himself and is 
less liable to commit immoral acts than the one who has 
not. 

This is true, also, with schoolboys. The one who is 
trained in a gymnasium has greater strength of will to 
overcome evil habits than the one who has not been so. 
trained. We therefore try to teach small boys not only 
to care for their bodies, but to associate with health and 
strength moral ideas. The immoral small boy is often 



ETHICAL ELEMENT IN PHYSICAL TRAINING. 53 

such an expert prevaricator that he can deceive the 
" very elect." He will listen to advice, but the notes of 
warning fall on dull ears. This child can be helped in 
the gymnasium or on the field quicker and better than 
in any other way. Bodily action is desirable in his case. 
Without a full, strong, natural action of the bodily 
functions, which is good for him morally and intellect- 
ually, both the moral nature and the mind are clogged. 
We cannot coerce a boy into being good, but we can sur- 
round him with moral influences. Physical training 
does this. Health of body must tend to promote a 
healthful mind and heart. 

11 The character of a man is determined by his supreme 
choice." He has a strong physical character when he 
possesses great bodily strength, a strong moral character 
when he has the power of doing moral acts. What con- 
stitutes moral character ? There are two elements : first, 
a strong will, or the power of decision ; second, a man 
must desire and choose the good in preference to evil. 
Can we show that physical training develops the will, 
or that the choice of good is influenced by gymnastics 
and athletics ? Professor James of Harvard says : ' ' The 
will is the power which holds the idea prominently be- 
fore the mind until it results in action," or, more simply 
stated, it is the power which commands action. This is 
shown in every feat of strength and skill in gymnastics, 
and there is little doubt in my mind but that the will is 
strengthened and developed by physical training. Re- 
garding the direction in which this force is exerted, it is 
known that the force may be exerted either in a moral or 
an immoral direction, and, although a man may be free 



54 METHODS OF TEACHING GYMNASTICS. 

to choose between good and evil, there are influences 
that have the power of determining his course of action. 
These influences are his own physical condition and his 
environment. A sound body tends to make a man good 
natured and philanthropic, while De Quincey's opium 
habit is a classical example of the desperate resorts to 
which dyspepsia can drive its victims. 
Rev. Dr. Munger of Yale College makes this statement : 
11 When we think, it is not alone the mind that thinks, 
it is the whole man, and the process begins with the 
body. The bodily fl ber or quality reaches to the thought. 
You will never get fine thought out of a coarse body. 
Nor less will you get sound thought out of an un- 
sound body. The bodily condition strikes through and 
shows itself in the quality of the thought. A vast 
amount of the poor, illogical, insipid, morbid, extrava- 
gant, pessimistic thought that finds its way into books 
and sermons and conversation has its origin in poor 
bodies and bad health. The body lies at the basis of suc- 
cess in all respects. A poor body means a poor life all 
the way up, even to the highest stages of spiritual life. 
Any religious experience that is connected with a weak 
or diseased body is to be regarded with suspicion. There 
can be no healthy thought, no normal feeling, no sound 
judgment, no vigorous action, except in connection with 
a sound body. Great minds are often shut up in poor 
bodies— as Pascal and Cowper, and Carlyle and Amiel— 
but in each case we make allowance for what is called 
the personal equation ; their opinions are examined in 
the light of their physical weakness or disease before 
they are trusted." 



ETHICAL ELEMENT IN PHYSICAL TRAINING. 55 

The testimony of G. Stanley Hall also is valuable. He 
■says : 

"I plead strongly for physical education on the 
grounds of good morals. I believe that the temptations 
that assail young people nowadays are to quite an extent 
those that would not overcome them if their muscles 
were strong. They are of that insidious, corroding, un- 
dermining kind that are somehow or other so prone to 
creep in as the contractile tissues become relaxed and 
habitually flabby." 

Finally, then, physical education develops moral char- 
acter, first, by lending its strength to the will ; secondly, 
by directing this strength to moral channels through the 
influence of a man's own physical nature, through his 
associates and the purity of the scenes of his work. The 
minister of the gospel should know more of physical 
training when teaching ethics ; the public school-teacher 
should know more of both physical training and ethics ; 
while the teacher of gymnastics should know more of 
ethics. 

"The laws of health are the laws of God, and are as 
binding as the Decalogue." — Parker. 

" The physiology is educating men for manhood and 
women for womanhood, both for humanity. In this 
lies the hope of the race."— Dr. Clark. 

"Get health, for sickness is a cannibal which eats up 
all the life and youth it can lay hold of, and so absorbs 
its own sons and daughters." — Emerson. 

"At college I was taught the motions of the heavenly 
bodies, as if their keeping in their orbits depended upon 
my knowing them, while I was in profound ignorance 



56 METHODS OF TEACHING GYMNASTICS. 

of the laws of health of my own body. The rest of rny 
life was, in consequence, one long battle with exhausted 
energies."— Horace Mann. 

F. Marion, in speaking on physical education, says : 
" Physical perfection serves to assure moral perfection. 
There is nothing more tyrannical than enfeebled organ- 
ism. Nothing sooner paralyzes the free activity of the 
reason, the flight of the imagination, and the exercise 
of reflection, nothing sooner dries up all the sources of 
thought, than a sickly body, whose functions languish, 
and for which every effort is a cause of suffering. Then 
have no scruples, and if you would form a soul which is 
to have ample development, a man of generous and in- 
trepid will, a workman capable of great undertakings 
and arduous labors, first, and above all, secure a vigorous 
organism, of powerful resistance, and muscles of steel. " 

"Aristotle thought that the highest object of man is 
the attainment of happiness, and the highest happiness 
of man is to be reached by perfect virtue. Neither per- 
fect happiness nor perfect virtue can be had without per- 
fect health. The end of life, and therefore of education, 
is the attainment at once of intellectual, moral, and 
physical virtue. Boys know well that games conduce, 
not merely to the physical but to moral health — that in 
the ball-field boys acquire virtues that no books can give 
them, such as control of temper, self-restraint, fairness, 
honor, unenvious approbation of another's success, and 
all that give and take life which stands a man in such 
good stead when he goes forth into the world and with- 
out which, indeed, success is always maimed and 
partial."— Charles Kingsley. 



CHAPTER IV. 

THE GYMNASTIC DAY'S ORDER. 

The object of gymnastics in our schools is primarily a 
hygienic one : it is an effort to maintain the health of 
the pupils at the highest possible level, in spite of the 
evil influences of a too one-sided mental training coupled 
with the sedentary habits which usually accompany a 
studious life. 

If we exclude from the gymnastic exercises not only 
those forbidden by the anatomico-mechanical structure 
of the normal body, but also such as have a tendency to 
induce injurious positions and make them permanent, 
we may ascribe a certain hygienic value to every other 
kind of muscular activity within physiological limits, on 
account of its stimulating effect on the general nutrition. 
But the different forms of bodily movements, of course, 
do not react upon the body in the same manner ; some 
have a decidedly local effect, promoting nutrition in the 
special parts directly affected by them, while the local 
result of some other forms is insignificant when com- 
pared to the general improvement of the whole system, 
which accrues from them ; and among these latter some 
act principally through increased general circulation, 
some principally by improving the respiration, some 
principally by regulating the nutrition, and so on. 

Hence, the gymnastic movements may, according to 

57 



58 METHODS OF TEACHING GYMNASTICS. 

their physiological effect, be classified into groups or 
natural families, into each of which are brought together 
those movements which in all main features resemble 
each other, but vary in minor details. When certain 
effects of gymnastics are found desirable, it is then evi- 
dent that not all possible movements are to be recom- 
mended, nor an indiscriminate, haphazard choice among 
them ; but only such, the effects of which are known to 
tend strongly in the desired direction. This self-evident 
truth, which must be one of the cornerstones of all gym- 
nastic work, may be called the principle of gymnastic 
selection. 

On the other hand, even if one organ or part of the 
body, or a few organs or parts of the body, be more in 
need of the health and strength-giving, or the corrective 
influence of muscular work, the body as a whole always 
suffers, to a greater or less extent, by infirmity or de- 
terioration in any particular part, and as a consequence 
no important family of movements can be altogether 
overlooked, when we make up a schedule of the gym- 
nastics for a certain individual or a certain class of indi- 
viduals, even if movements for specific purposes in cer- 
tain cases must have a prominent place. The whole 
body, the whole man, must have proper attention. The 
human being is not a machine which will be kept in the 
best running condition by the occasional repair of cer- 
tain independent parts, which together constitute the 
whole, and of which some may be in need of special at- 
tention ; but the work must be so arranged that the 
whole is not forgotten for the sake of its parts. This is 
the principle of gymnastic totality. 



THE GYMNASTIC DAY'S ORDER. 59 

Closely connected with this is the third principle un- 
derlying rational gymnastics, that of gymnastic unity, 
which means that the effects of the different movements 
used must be considered not only with regard to them- 
selves, but also with regard to all the other movements 
employed, in such a manner that the effect of the one 
does not nullify or unduly multiply that of any other. 
Only by such selection and arrangement may we hope 
to gain the most favorable results from our work within 
the shortest possible time. 

A list of movements, selected and arranged on these 
principles, and intended to constitute the gymnastic 
work during each day of a shorter or longer period of 
time, until the conditions of the pupils so change with 
regard to health, strength, control of the body, etc., as 
to warrant a corresponding change in the movements 
used, has been called a gymnastic day's order. 

From what has already been said, it is apparent that the 
day's order is very variable, according to the desired re- 
sults and the conditions under which the work is to be 
given. Its character depends on the most varied circum- 
stances ; it is influenced by the general health, age, sex, 
strength, and other qualities of the pupils, by the time 
allotted to the work, by the nature of the place where 
the exercises are given, whether in the schoolroom, in a 
regularly appointed gymnasium, on a suitable ground in 
the open air. The instructor must, in order to be suc- 
cessful and to do justice to his pupils, so vary his sched- 
ules as to bring them in accord with these and other con- 
ditions. There are consequently no fixed and ironclad 
rules with regard to the composition of the day's order. 



60 METHODS OF TEACHING GYMNASTICS. 

But experience shows that in all such institutions where 
it is especially desirable to benefit from gymnastics, the 
conditions present important similarities, which make 
it possible to recommend a certain type of day's order, 
which can and ought to be more or less strictly adhered 
to, but which need not, and must not, be slavishly fol- 
lowed. The indications in the different cases decide the 
necessary deviations from it. 

Thus, every day's order is properly prefaced by such 
preparations as will tend to bring order out of chaos, 
to put the class under the control of the instructor and 
enable him without loss of time, rapidly, and with ease 
to move the whole class or its component parts, divi- 
sions, or individuals, to different places, or into different 
positions, in them or from them to execute the necessary 
movements. These movements, which are not gymnas- 
tic in the same hygienic sense as those which follow, all 
of which have a definite hygienic purpose, have received 
the common name, order movements, and consist mainly 
of taking the fundamental positions, alignments, spread- 
ing and bringing the class together into different forma- 
tions, and similar evolutions, often borrowed from mili- 
tary tactics. Besides the object just mentioned, they 
are also intended to attract the attention of the pupils 
from the usual mental work to work of a totally differ- 
ent nature, to awake them and put physical life into 
them. They are, therefore, quick and sharp, requiring 
a minimum of muscular strength. 

When their object is gained, the work is introduced 
by mild movements to increase the arterial afflux to the 
muscles, thus relieving the cerebro-spinal system from 



THE GYMNASTIC DAY'S ORDER. 61 

the congestive tendency created by mental work as- 
sisted by more or less cramped postures. If the allotted 
time permits it, these introductory movements consist of 
a series of free standing movements, embracing simple 
forms from several of the natural families — head, arm, 
trunk, and leg movements — among which the leg move- 
ments are predominant, and are used alone, if the time 
be short. This predominance of the leg movements is 
based upon the fact that they bring greater masses of 
muscles into play than any other form of mild move- 
ments, and as a result their "derivative" influence is 
very marked. They are also used frequently in our 
daily life, or closely related to forms which are, and the 
necessary amount of cerebration is therefore compara- 
tively small ; which means, with regard to their regu- 
lative influence upon the circulation, that no great 
counteracting power is brought to bear against their de- 
rivative effect. 

Next follow tense-bending s, the type of which is rec- 
ognized by an evenly distributed, gentle backward curve 
of the whole body from the feet to the hands, which are 
extended above the head grasping a firm support behind, 
upon which, by the full extension of the arms, they exe- 
cute a push which brings a tension upon the whole front 
aspect of the body. The effect of this group is far-reach- 
ing : the antero-posterior curve in the upper part of the 
vertebral column, generally exaggerated into deformity 
by the usual sitting posture, is flattened, which causes 
the ribs to be spread out in front in a fan shape — an ef- 
fect which is to some extent increased by the traction 
exerted upon the sternum and the ribs by the arms 



62 METHODS OF TEACHING GYMNASTICS. 

through the pectorals ; the intervertebral disks, upon 
the front part of which the usual posture brings a 
strong pressure supplemented by long-sustained traction 
on the posterior ligaments, are relieved from this 
pressure, and in its place a corresponding compres- 
sion of their hindmost parts and an extension of the 
anterior ligaments take place. This passive exten- 
sion concerns, however, not only the anterior vertebral 
ligaments proper, but reaches also other ligaments and 
muscles, which in a contracted state serve as ligaments ; 
again, the extension of these muscles, for instance, the 
intercostal and abdominal ones, which in itself is a 
means to increase their extensibility, and thus their 
proper functional ability, causes also an equalization of 
the circulation by assisting the venous reflux from them ; 
this effect is still more emphasized both by the thoracic 
aspiration which results from the position, and by the 
mechanical raising of the diaphragm and abdominal 
viscera, which are so often congested or suffer from slug- 
gish circulation on account of being pressed down into 
or toward the pelvis. These are only a few points. It 
would take a great deal too much space to enumerate all 
the modes in which the tense-bendings act beneficially. 
We now bring in one or more heave-movements, i. e., 
such in which the body is wholly or partly suspended 
by means of the hands. If the tense-bendings are looked 
upon as corrective exercises for the thorax par excellence, 
the heave-movements may be spoken of as educative. 
The passive expansion which the former cause we find 
also in this group, though in a far milder degree ; but to 
this is added an active element by which the thoracic 



THE GYMNASTIC DAY'S ORDER. 63 

cage is lifted by the action of its own muscles, which 
thereby are to be educated to maintain the correct pos- 
ture. The pectorals, for instance, contract powerfully 
toward their humeral attachments, which are made 
fixed by the posture, and actively lift the sternum and 
ribs. The increased strength in these muscles, which 
results from a judiciously progressive use of this class of 
movements, is of course explained by the increased 
arterial afflux, while the sedative influence of the move- 
ments, which is frequently noticed, probably is due to 
the increased venous reflux from the head on account of 
the thoracic aspiration, and from the spine because of its 
passive extension. 

The heave-movements require quite a good deal of 
muscular strength, whether in their purest form, such 
as heaving and sinking of the body by means of the 
arms, or in more mixed types, such as climbing. Some 
muscular fatigue will therefore result, and we find a 
necessity to introduce after them such movements as 
require comparatively little strength. Now our pupils 
usually have a poor general carriage of their bodies. No 
movements are better apt to improve them in this respect 
than the so-called balancing movements, which train the 
powers to maintain the equilibrium in more or less diffi- 
cult postures, generally upon a small base of support. 
But these are also movements which require only little 
muscular strength, and they are therefore introduced 
here as a relief from the previous groups. While exe- 
cuting these movements, the pupils may rest. Besides, 
they have a tendency to moderate the accelerated heart 
action. Their principal effect is the education of the 



64 METHODS OF TEACHING GYMNASTICS. 

power of coordination, teaching the pupils to send stim- 
uli of correct strength to the correct muscles. The longi- 
tudinal muscles running from vertebra to vertebra and 
principally concerned in keeping this movable pillar of 
segments in the correct position to maintain its equi- 
librium, must be properly coordinated to fill their office, 
for which a well-adjusted cerebration is necessary. And 
not only they, but the other muscles of the trunk and 
those of the legs also are implicated in the movements, 
and their contractions must be finely adjusted. It is 
just at this place in the day's order that such a work may 
be best undertaken, because the previous exercises have, 
as has already been stated, relieved the brain of the im- 
pure blood which has collected there during the previous 
mental work, while the muscular work has not been of 
such intensity as to cause fatigue of the motor cells or to 
saturate the general circulation with fatigue stuffs. 

Now commences a part which is intended mainly to 
make permanent the undoing of the evils of cramped 
postures and intellectual work. The muscles are to be 
used in such movements as will strengthen them enough 
to maintain the good posture gained and by their strength 
improve the great vital functions of the circulatory, 
respiratory, and digestive organs. No muscular work is 
undertaken for its immediate effect upon the muscles 
themselves, if it is not found, by looking behind this 
effect, that indirectly these vital functions are materially 
benefited. Thus follow first movements for the back of 
the trunk, to increase the strength of all the muscles of 
the back, principally in the thoracic region, to enable 
them to carry the shoulders and the chest in such a way 



THE GYMNASTIC DAY'S ORDER. 65 

as to give the necessary space for heart and lungs ; then 
movements for the front side, principally to strengthen 
the abdominal walls, creating a firmer support for the 
abdominal viscera and making of them, so to speak, a 
natural apparatus for massage of these same viscera. 
Their increased strength and improved ability to func- 
tion will cause more thoroughgoing kneading of the ab- 
dominal contents, which, in its turn, induces increased 
osmosis from the intestines, increased secretion from 
their glands, more rapid circulation, and a more effective 
peristalsis. The main object of the movements for the 
sides is of a similar nature, though different groups of 
muscles are brought to contraction or extension by them, 
and thus different regions may be specially affected. 
They will also increase the movability of the vertebra? 
upon each other, and affect both costal and diaphragmatic 
respiration ; besides which they, according to some au- 
thorities, act as stimulants for the spinal nerves at their 
exit from the intervertebral foramina — a statement which 
appears to be based more on theoretical than experi- 
mental grounds, and therefore is not absolutely sure, 
though it appears probable. 

If the allotted time is ample, it would be well to give 
another series of movements from these last families, of 
course of a different kind, but if so they ought to be 
separated from the preceding series by some movements 
which can give relief to the parts which have been in 
activity. For this purpose rhythmical leg movements, 
such as marches and military evolutions, are commonly 
employed. When the desired relief has been gained, 
these may be changed into the form of running, for the 



66 METHODS OF TEACHING GYMNASTICS. 

sake of training and strengthening the heart and lungs. 
If running is employed in this place it will, of course, be 
necessary to quiet the heart action and relieve the respi- 
ration, if it has become labored, before passing over to 
the next series of trunk movements. 

If, on the other hand, one series of trunk movements 
must suffice, these marches will serve to give ease from 
the previous work, while the running forms a part of the 
precipitant movements proper. Under this term we em- 
brace all such movements as demand a great expenditure 
of force in a short period of time, and which therefore 
are executed by great masses of muscles. Besides the 
running already mentioned, the different forms of jump- 
ing and vaulting are of this nature. Their physiological 
effect is the stimulation and strengthening of the circu- 
latory and respiratory functions, which are charged with 
removing the great amount of waste materials formed in 
these movements and supplying the muscles with new 
nutrition. With these movements, the effect of which 
is the most general one of any of the groups spoken of, 
the day's order has reached its highest point of intensity, 
its climax, and it now rapidly descends toward complete 
rest through such movements as will quiet the heart- 
beat, accelerate the excretion of the results of the chemi- 
cal combustions, and cool the body by increasing the 
secretion of the water from the lungs. It is the respira- 
tory exercises which are most suitable for this purpose, 
and which should always end the day's work, as well as 
be employed whenever needed in the day's order ; but 
they may well be preceded by slow leg movements on ac- 
count of their derivative influence, and especially may 



THE GYMNASTIC DAY'S ORDER. 67 

these be very profitably employed in the form of balanc- 
ing movements after such precipitant movements as 
jumping and vaulting, which are executed by one at 
the time, and after which each pupil may take such a 
movement by walking on the balancing beam in return- 
ing to his place in the rank. 

In observing the list which is here recommended as a 
type suitable in a majority of cases, it will be found that 
there is a steady progression from milder to stronger 
movements within the day's order. But a steady pro- 
gression must also take place from day to day or from 
week to week, and in no family must the progression ad- 
vance to any extent without a corresponding progression 
within the other families, as this would be contrary to 
the rules of gymnastic totality and unity. 

It is the hygienic basis of the day's order which we 
have endeavored briefly to sketch, because of the pre- 
eminent importance of gymnastics as a hygienic agent. 
So far as we know, the purely educational or psychologi- 
cal aims which may be reached by gymnastics are also 
best furthered by the same sequence and arrangement, 
though we cannot affirm this as positively as the hygienic 
benefits of the day's order, because of the few data col- 
lected by psychologists. 



CHAPTEK Y. 

EFFECT OF CERTAIN EXERCISES UPON THE PULSE-RATE. 

Object. The object of this chapter is, first, to present 
the results of observations, showing the effect of certain 
movements of the body on the action of the heart after 
jumping and running exercises. Second, to discuss 
briefly the reasons for placing precipitant, slow leg, and 
breathing exercises in the Swedish day's order where 
they are. Third, to bring up for discussion a few ques- 
tions pertinent to the subject. 

Why the Tests were made. Some years ago my atten- 
tion was called to the reason for placing the jump- 
ing exercises after the motions for the "abdomen, fore 
part of the body, and alternate side movements." Baron 
Posse, in his " Chief Characteristics of the Swedish 
System," places the slow leg exercises before the jump, fol- 
lowing it with breathing exercises. Jakob Bolin places 
precipitant work, his term for running and jumping, 
after the abdominal movements. The quieting of the 
action of the heart after violent exercises by slow leg 
motion and rhythmic breathing exercises seemed to be 
such a cardinal point in the Ling system, that I adopted 
the method and am still using it. As there is a unanim- 
ity of opinion among the advocates of the Ling sys- 
tem day's order, relative to the placing of such exercises, 
allow me to quote from one of the authorities, which 

68 



EFFECT OF CERTAIN EXERCISES. 69 

quotation will agree in the main with the opinions ex- 
pressed by other leaders. ' ' The movements mentioned 
above, namely for the front, sides of the waist, and ab- 
domen, following each other in the order named, are 
performed with gradually increasing force. By these 
movements the system is prepared for the next follow- 
ing. These are the more vigorous exercises of running 
and jumping. With these movements the culmination 
of the day's order is reached, after which the a3celerated 
action of the heart must be normalized, and the body 
prepared for rest. This is accomplished by slow, meas- 
ured, leg movements, accompanied by deep rhythmic 
breathing movements." * 

It has often occurred to me that this arrangement of 
the approach to and departure from the precipitant work 
was like Mark Twain's description of the ascent of Mt. 
Vesuvius — long, gradual, moderate to the top ; short and 
quick to the base. The first question, therefore, presents 
itself : If it is necessary to go through eight series of 
movements to prepare the heart for the strain of the 
jumping exercises, why are only two groups given to 
normalize its action ? What objection can there be in 
the first series of these exercises arranged according to 
the Swedish day's order, to placing the running next to 
the abdominal work, when they can be so given in a 
second series, while in the more advanced arrangements 
they are sometimes placed in the middle of a group? 
These questions are asked because it is not clear to many 
teachers why this arrangement is so strictly adhered to. 
Another question arises : If the exercises involve a high 

* Dr. Enebuske. 



70 METHODS OF TEACHING GYMNASTICS. 

degree of heart exertion, but never exceed the danger 
limit, why are so few movements given to quiet the 
action of the heart? Why not give "in place rest," as 
well as slow leg exercises ? If the precipitant work 
quickens the action of the heart and lungs, should we 
for the time attempt to normalize them? Is it not 
nature's method of meeting the condition ? In any case 
of exertion would not rest be as judicious as a continu- 
ation of exercise ? Is not the moment of complete re- 
laxation between each of the movements of as much 
value in quieting the action of the heart as the exercises 
which follow ? 

The work being done at Yale University by Dr. Scrip- 
ture, and at Harvard by Dr. Fitz, cannot but be of great 
service to the cause of physical education, while so high 
an authority as Dr. Ladd makes the statement that the 
relation between psychology and gymnastics is an inti- 
mate one. The teacher, whose duty it is to mold the 
bodies of men, and so the mind and feelings, should un- 
derstand the elements of psychology, if, as has been 
stated, psychology is the mother of the science of edu- 
cation. In this research work I did not go out of my 
way to attack any system, nor to harbor any prejudice, 
but if a system is rational, and there is a scientific reason 
for everything adopted, then let it stand the test of in- 
vestigation. 

What the Tests were: With the aid of the kymo- 
graph, sphygmograph, time indicator, and smoked drum, 
these tests were made, with the assistance of members of 
the senior and junior classes of the Anderson Normal 
School of Gymnastics. Dr. Seaver took a number of the 



EFFECT OF CERTAIN EXERCISES. 71 

readings. Part of the tests were made with a Dudgeon 
sphygmograph. It is impossible to present all of the trac- 
ings, but attention is called to a few of the outlines, which 
are very similer to others secured by the same tests. Al- 
though the figures given are taken from one hundred 
and twenty persons, we have kept a record of a very 
much larger number, and it is found that when we in- 
crease the numbers there is not a great difference in the 
results. Of the one hundred and twenty, forty were ex- 
perimented upon to show the effect of slow leg exercises 
and rhythmic breathing upon the action of the heart 
after running ; forty more tried standing in " place rest " 
after the run, and the last forty took abdominal move- 
ments. In every case the normal pulse was read for 
thirty seconds. This was followed immediately by run- 
ning in place, the person taking about seventy-five steps 
in half a minute, after which the pulse-rate was recorded 
for a period of thirty seconds, then followed four slow- 
stepping movements with each foot, and arm raising 
shoulder high to the side, accompanied by inspiration 
and lowered with expiration. The breathing movements 
were given four times, after which the pulse was read for 
the last time. We must bear in mind that during the 
half minute after the running exercise, while the pulse 
was being read, there was a period of rest; this might cor- 
respond to the moment of complete relaxation mentioned 
before. The second series of tests was given in much the 
same way, with this exception, that in place of the slow 
leg and breathing exercises, the pupil was required to 
hold the position of place rest thirty seconds, and in the 
last series the body was bent backward four to six times. 



72 METHODS OF TEACHING GYMNASTICS. 

In the first series the total number of beats of the 
heart for forty persons was sixteen hundred and 
twenty-nine (1,629). After the run the pulse-rate went 
up to 2,227. It fell again after the leg work and breath- 
ing exercises to 1,668. In the second series of tests, 
the normal pulse was 1,648 ; after the run 2,228, and 
after place rest 1,646. The third series showed the nor- 
mal pulse 1,699, after the run 2,326, and after abdominal 
work 1,703. The following table will perhaps make this 
plainer : 

TEST. 

1. Slow leg and breathing exercises, 1,629 2,227 1,668 

2. Best, or " In place rest," 1,648 2,228 1,646 

3. Abdominal work, 1,699 2,326 1,703- 

Another set of figures will show that in the case of the 
first forty who were experimented upon, the action of 
the heart was reduced below the normal in thirteen cases, 
above the normal in twenty cases, and was equal in seven 
cases. In the second test the action of the heart was 
below normal in seventeen, did not reach the normal in 
eighteen, and was equal in five. In the last test, the 
heart-beat was reduced below normal in nineteen, above 
normal in eighteen, and just the same in three, so that 
by looking at the following table we find that the 
abdominal work brought the heart down below the nor- 
mal in the greatest number of cases, while the slow leg 
work and breathing show the least reduction. In the 
first test we find the greatest number who are above the 
normal after the so-called "normalizing exercises," 
while in the second and third they were the same. 
Finally, the slow leg and breath iug exercises were given,, 



EFFECT OF CERTAIN EXERCISES 73 

and brought seven back to exactly normal condition. 
''In place rest" was given next, and abdominal work 
came last. 

Test. Below. Above. Normal. 

1. Slow leg and breathing exercises, 13 



20 




18 


•5 


18 


3 



2. Rest, 17 

3. Abdominal work, 19 
Fig. 1, standing normal, 1-2 m, . 

Fig. 2, 30 seconds run, pulse-rate 75 for 1-2 m. 
Fig. .3, after slow leg work and breathing exe: 
pulse for 1-2 m., 39. 
Fig. 4, after 1-2 m., "in place rest," pulse 39. 




-KNvJVjvKJV- 



The tests recorded upon the revolving drum will not 
"be given because they do not show quite so plainly 
as those by the Dudgeon sphygmograph. Fig. 1 
shows the normal pulse, 33 beats for half a minute, 



74 METHODS OF TEACHING GYMNASTICS. 

person standing. This tracing is a fair sample of those 
taken from the normal pulse. Fig. 2 shows the pulse- 
rate after the patient has run in place for thirty seconds, 
the rate being 75. Fig. 3 gives the story of the pulse 
after thirty seconds of slow leg work and breathing ex- 
ercises, the rate being 39, or one greater than normal. 
Fig. 4 shows the action of the pulse after thirty seconds 
in place rest. We notice by comparing Fig. 4 with Fig. 
1 that it approaches nearer the normal than Fig. 3. In 
Fig. 4 the cardiac impulse is greater than in Fig. 3, the 
length of the tidal wave is about the same, there is some 
difference in the dicrotic wave, while the diastolic curve 
in Fig. 4 seems to be nearer that of Fig. 1 than does Fig. 3. 

Conclusions. I do not wish to place myself on rec- 
ord as saying that these tests prove a point. They are 
interesting, however, and should lend some weight to 
these conclusions. Slow leg and breathing exercises 
tend to " normalize" the action of the heart after running, 
but this is also true of standing " in place rest," and ab- 
dominal work. But which is best? Pupils seem to 
prefer the first method if the choice is left to them. The 
tracings show that rest brings the pulse outline nearer 
the normal than do breathing exercises and slow leg 
work. 

The statement has been made that "the Swedish sys- 
tem is rational, and there is a scientific reason for every- 
thing adopted." There is no doubt in my mind that the 
Swedish system in its theory approaches nearer perfec- 
tion than any other ; but there is some uncertainty 
among American teachers as to whether the statement 
should be made that the arrangement of the day's order 



EFFECT OF CERTAIN EXERCISES. 75 

is scientific. If this is true, and I have no reason for 
wishing it were not, the facts ought to be brought for- 
ward to prove it. 

The attention of the reader is called to the reply to this 
chapter by Baron Posse. See Posse Gymnasium Journal. 



CHAPTER VI. 

STIMULUS, OR HOW TO AROUSE INTEREST. 

G. Stanley Hall says : "As teachers, we have to 
work more and more with interest. You cannot lay too 
much of the stress of educational work upon the will 
with children, but most of it must be done through in- 
terest. The value of your teaching is not the informa- 
tion you have to put into the mind, but the interest you 
have awakened. The mind is evolved out of heartiness. 
The characters of great men prove this. Whether in 
fiction or in prose, we are always coming up against the 
great fact that it is enthusiasm that governs the world. n 

President Eliot says : " The individual requires teach- 
ing in these days, and no teaching is good which does 
not awaken interest in the pupil." 

To what qualities or methods is due the success which 
the best teachers achieve in stirring their pupils to at- 
tentiveness, to interest in their work, and, generally, to 
intellectual keenness and growth? This chapter is in- 
tended to draw particular attention to those qualities 
which are capable of being adopted or acquired, and are 
not merely natural gifts. "One great difficulty of my 
subject, every one will feel at once. It is this : that the 
power of stimulating pupils is so largely a matter of nat- 
ural aptitude, a special form of genius, that it becomes 
not only very difficult to analyze, but it may even seem 

76 



STIMULUS, OR HOW TO AROUSE INTEREST. 77 

that the whole topic is at variance with the practical art 
of teaching. It is true, no doubt, that in all branches 
of teaching, the lively and attractive manner, quick- 
ness and adaptability and resource, insight into charac- 
ter and the speaker's instinctive sympathy with his 
audience, real personal interest, both in the studies and 
the students, force and variety and felicity of expres- 
sion, wide and accurate knowledge, the power of seizing 
upon the telling points of a subject and presenting them 
suitably, apt and copious illustration, and, above all, a 
strong personality and high-mindedness of character — 
all these are most powerful stimulants to young natures 
brought under their influence, and all, or most of them, 
are hard, if not impossible, to give rules or codes of ac- 
quiring. They constitute, or they go far to constitute, 
the genius of the teacher."* 

It is essential that the teacher shall have at his dis- 
posal a fund of illustrations, perhaps stories, and at 
times anecdotes. The first requisite in a teacher is that 
he shall be able to secure the attention of his class. 
Those who cannot do this have mistaken their vocation, 
they ought not to be teachers at all. Those who have 
the power of securing attention can usually do so with 
ease. It is an art that can be acquired by study. 

My attention was called to the method adopted by a 
well-known Greek professor in one of our universities. 
It has been thought that there should exist between the 
teacher and the pupil an abyss or chasm, across which 
the scholar can never pass. The old-style teaching in- 
culcated these ideas in the minds of our parents, and it 

* Browning. 



78 METHODS OF TEACHING GYMNASTICS. 

has been a difficult matter for them to change their 
views in the days of their advanced age. They are apt 
to think that the child should be taught as they were 
taught, that the methods which were used in disciplin- 
ing them should be those of the present generation. 
They forget that the child is supposed to start from their 
shoulders, and is living in a more advanced age. The 
professor of Greek in one of our universities on one oc- 
casion startled the class by a very lively anecdote, which 
produced roars of laughter. It was a new idea to the 
boys that the instructor could be amusing, and to-day 
it is doubtful if there is a more popular professor on the 
faculty than this one, who, although willing to meet the 
boys on their own ground, to talk with them of their 
daily affairs and enter more into their lives, never per- 
mitted them to take liberties with him. This shows 
that a university professor can joke with students, be, 
to some extent, "one of the boys," and yet keep their 
respect. 

An important question is, How can we stimulate at- 
tention, which is one of the requisites in producing in- 
terest ? The obvious answer is, by making the lessons as 
interesting and amusing as possible. Interesting, of 
course, but how? Manner goes for something. The 
teacher can be easy, friendly, and familiar. Stiffness is 
a mistake. It has been said that the school-teacher must 
keep up his dignity. True, but it can be kept up in such 
a manner that the child is not repelled, but rather at- 
tracted. We do not expect a teacher of gymnastics to 
make a buffoon of himself, nor to allow the children to 
take liberties with him ; but at the same time he can re- 



STIMULUS, OR HOW TO AROUSE INTEREST. 79 

member that the old saying, "Familiarity breeds con- 
tempt " is not in all cases true. A certain form of famil- 
iarity will breed contempt. 

The teacher should pay much attention to little things, 
such as tend to stimulate, in the matter of education. 
The teacher's mind and sympathy should be constantly 
active on this point ; he should cultivate fertility of re- 
sources in the minutise. As the Eaton grammar says, 
the nature of man is fond of novelty ; and if this is so, 
how much more do we find it in the wide-awake, alert, 
healthy child ! 

All boys are fond of stories. They never tire of hear- 
ing of the deeds of heroes and of strong men. The man 
or woman who instructs boys should be familiar with 
the lives of the great and the strong men of history. 
Seldom has a class failed to pay strict attention when 
listening to the exploits of that well-known athlete, the 
father of his country. The story has been told many 
times how George Washington made a running broad 
jump of twenty-three feet, and held the world's record 
until a Brooklyn man finally jumped a few inches far- 
ther than he did. I should urge the teacher to read of 
the wrestling bouts of this well-known president. Speak 
of his height and stature. William Blaikie, in one of his 
lectures, used to mention the fact that George Washing- 
ton was perfectly straight from the axilla to the hip, and 
that his wide waist was a sign of his enormous strength. 
What makes "Ivanhoe" interesting to many of its 
readers? The feats of Richard the First of England, 
whose mighty arm could w r ield the heavy sword. In Sir 
Walter Scott's "Talisman," boys read with great inter- 



80 METHODS OF TEACHING GYMNASTICS. 

est the test made by Richard the Lion-hearted, when, 
with his wonderful sword, he severed an iron mace 
measuring an inch in diameter ; and they also wonder at 
the skill of Saladin, who, with his razor-edged scimitar 
cut in two the light silk handkerchief. 

There is a book published called "The Wonders of 
Bodily Strength and Skill. 7 ' The stories and histories 
taken from this book have frequently stimulated boys 
when they have become tired of the routine drill in the 
gymnasium. It is not necessary to go back to history 
to find the records of brave and strong men. We find 
them in our every-day life. Boys and girls are as much 
interested in the doings of the modern giant as they are 
in those of the ancient. Scholars can be stimulated to 
do what is right, to obey the laws of health, to be better 
children, if these stories are properly told. The reader 
should understand that these anecdotes are only inci- 
dents in the lesson. Often when the class is tired a 
short story will be most acceptable to them. 

No one can successfully teach boys who does not know 
the nature of these young animals. This can be learned 
by carefully studying child-life. It is better to regulate 
our teaching by this knowledge than to work without it. 
For example, we know that all boys are fond of play ; 
then make their work seem play to them. When a class 
of boys enter a gymnasium the first thing they do is to 
rush for some of the swinging apparatus ; they turn their 
backs upon all the light appliances. Any experienced 
teacher of gymnastics has noticed this. What do we 
infer? That it is the wish of the boy to swing, to hang, 
or to go through some of the heavy gymnastic move- 



STIMULUS, OR HOW TO AROUSE INTEREST. 81 

ments. He enjoys this work, it seems to be more in ac- 
cord with his nature. Can we not, therefore, learn a 
lesson from this, and so arrange the gymnastic exercises 
that they shall be as attractive to the boy as the work 
which he takes of his own free will? I do not mean 
that the lessons in free gymnastics shall be discarded, 
because they are of great importance. The child should 
be daily drilled in the exercises that will tend to over- 
come the common physical defects. It soon becomes 
medicine to the boy, but it is essential, nevertheless, that 
every child should be trained in this way, and should not 
be allowed to feel that life is entirely free from restraint. 
Discipline is a good thing for a boy, it must be found in 
physical as well as in mental training. The gymnastic 
drill can be made very attractive to both boys and girls, 
if the teacher will use tact. 

There are many things to be taken into consideration 
when we attempt to arouse interest. The teacher must, 
of course, be interested in the pupil ; but this is not all. 
The pupil, on his side, must have his share of interest in 
the teacher. To arouse this feeling the master gains the 
confidence, the good-will, the respect of the boys. The 
limits of this chapter will not allow us to go into many 
of the details, but attention is called to the methods 
which have made some teachers interesting. 

Personally, I have learned a great deal from two classes 
of instructors. In one case I worked because I feared 
them, and dreaded the results of not having a lesson. 
In the other case I had the utmost respect and love for 
the teacher, and was ashamed to fail. The question was 
raised by a minister in one of our churches once, when 



82 METHODS OF TEACHING GYMNASTICS. 

he said : "A person can be sent to heaven in two 
ways ; he can either be allured by its attractions, or he 
can be frightened there by the horrors of the other place." 
So in teaching — a child will work, fearing punishment, 
or he will work because he loves the teacher. Of the two 
forms, of course, the latter is preferable. 

Simplicity is very essential in any teacher. That in- 
structor who can make his work so simple that it is 
understood by the dullard in the class will teach 
better than the one who selects the five or six bright 
ones and gives his attention to them. We are apt 
to make this mistake, and to teach the few rather 
than the many. One instructor claims that he watches 
the stupid boy in his class, and when he sees his face 
lighten up, knows that he has grasped the subject. 

Another method of making the work interesting is to 
understand the subject thoroughly, to make a study of 
the methods of teaching, and to be a good gymnast. It 
has been said that it is not essential for the instructor 
in gymnastics to be a good exponent of his work, but 
if he can lead the class this will be sufficient. I have 
found, and others will bear me out in the statement, 
that many of our teachers fail because they are easily 
beaten by their own scholars in these gymnastic move- 
ments. I believe in what may be termed fancy gymnas- 
tics. They are the games and the sports which the 
young men in our gymnasia like. The teacher will 
arouse more interest and greater enthusiasm if he is 
able to take part in these sports than will the one whose 
knowledge is purely theoretical. Every young man who 
teaches gymnastics should become proficient in handling 



STIMULUS, OR HOW TO AROUSE INTEREST. 83 

the heavy apparatus ; what he does do he should do 
well. We admit, without dwelling at length upon the 
fact, that we have respect for those who know more 
than we do, who can do better work than we can, and 
that the reverse of this brings a reverse opinion. There- 
fore, in arousing or stimulating interest and keeping it 
up, I should say to the teacher of gymnastics, whether a 
man or a woman : Be proficient in your work, but re- 
member, as Professor Richards has said, " The gymnastic 
work is not the ultimatum, but is the means to an end." 

Interest. The teacher may learn something from 
Basedow, who taught his children by means of biscuits 
baked in the form of letters. The children were allowed 
to eat any letter which they could name. 

Locke says: ".Whatever children are deeply inter- 
ested in they will never forget. Therefore I think it may 
be well to give the children something every day to re- 
member, but something that is in itself worth remem- 
bering." A boy who cannot say his lessons may have 
an excellent memory for baseball or football, or may be 
able to describe accurately a trip he has made, a hunt 
upon which he has gone, or some other event associated 
with interest and pleasure. Do not, therefore, accuse 
your children of not having memories if they fail to 
repeat that which seems to them dry and monotonous. 

A child will remember the foolish parts of a lesson and 
forget the wise parts. For example, it has been said 
that in reading the history of the life of a famous gen- 
eral, the boys never forgot the fact that his horse's tail 
was shot off in a certain battle, w T hile the salient points 
of the history were not remembered twenty-four hours. 



CHAPTEE VII. 

ATTENTION. 

Attention is so closely allied to interest that the 
author has thought best to write a short chapter upon 
this subject. 

No teacher will succeed who has not the power of 
holding or maintaining the attention of the pupil. It is 
utterly impossible. Therefore it is necessary for the one 
who leads the class to, in some way, arouse and hold the 
attention of the child. Interest always begets attention ; 
therefore, if you are not an adept at arousing attention, 
but have the faculty of creating interest, do the latter, 
because the former will follow. Condillac says : "The 
important point is to make the child comprehend what 
attention is." We do not believe, with Condillac, that 
this is the important point. It is not so much to teach 
the child to be attentive as the way to succeed in this. 
Do not explain theoretical conditions, because they 
amount to nothing ; but interest the child. The teacher 
is sure of success, and instruction really begins, on the 
day that he has held the attention of his pupils for a 
certain number of minutes. It will be easily noticed 
that the scholars who have lost their interest, who are 
not sufficiently aroused to pay attention, will permit 
their eyes to wander. The time has now come for the 
teacher to act, and if the work that has been given to 

84 



ATTENTION. 85 

the child does not produce the desired result, a quick 
change of some kind should be made. That time is lost 
to the teacher and to the class when disorder reigns and 
the interest is lacking. 

Attention, of course, requires the use of the will, and 
in this way we educate that important factor of the 
mind. We cannot attach too much importance to the 
subject. The history of the most brilliant scientific 
discoveries and of the great works of human art is, for 
the most part, but the recital of the efforts of the atten- 
tion. Newton said that he discovered the laws of uni- 
versal attraction by always thinking on the subject, or 
by paying attention. It is characteristic of a normal 
state of intelligence and, so to speak, the health of the 
spirit. That teacher who is not able to place her atten- 
tion upon the subject is not, for the time being, in a 
healthy mental condition. The one who allows herself 
or her attention to be easily called away from the subject 
should investigate and ascertain the cause and then re- 
move that cause. 

Children are easily distracted, and distraction is the 
very opposite of attention. Therefore allow nothing to 
distract their attention. It is far better, in teaching 
children, that the room should be so arranged that noth- 
ing in the street or outside of the building will distract 
them. It is better to have the curtains raised from the 
bottom of the windows than to be lowered from the top. 
It is not a good plan to have in the room too many ob- 
jects that will call their attention away from the lesson. 
It is unwise to allow a series of exercises to be carried on 
in one part of the room while the teacher is endeavoring 



86 METHODS OF TEACHING GYMNASTICS. 

to instruct a class in another. For example, we would 
not allow individual work of any character to go on 
while a class was being drilled in light gymnastics. The 
reason is obvious. 

We should not expect or demand of a child real, abso- 
lute attention, and expect to maintain it for more than 
a few minutes. We might as well expect immobility on 
the part of a bird. Imposed attention, as mentioned by 
Payne, is a matter that requires some thought. The 
best plan will be to place a child in such a condition 
that nothing will excite distraction. Madame de Saussure 
has said : "Cause a calm to reign around the infant." 
On one occasion we requested our teacher to allow us to 
go to the orchard back of the school to study our lessons. 
We had a pleasant hour under the trees, but our lessons 
were not learned. Our attention was constantly called 
to what was going on in the trees, in the fields, or we 
were watching the boys in the lot below us, who were 
busy playing ball. So in teaching gymnastics. Do not 
allow anything to interfere with the lesson itself. The 
limit of a child's attention is soon exhausted. He will, 
moreover, apply it to what he is interested in. 

Finally, in a general way, the attention of a child is 
weak, and there must be a resort to all sorts of stimu- 
lants which are healthy to arouse and keep it. Horace 
Grant has shown that beyond from five to ten minutes 
for young children and from thirty to forty-five for older 
pupils, the attention is wearied and intellectual effort 
comes to an end. We would not infer from this that a 
child can be taught but five minutes. It is well to com- 
pel them to pay strict attention to the lesson for a short 



ATTENTION. 87 

time, then to allow them an interval of rest, such as 
would be given in the command, "In place, rest." They 
can be called to order and another exercise given, this to 
be followed by the interval of rest. It is not supposed, 
however, that the gymnastic lesson for a child will ex- 
tend over a period of more than twenty to thirty 
minutes. 

The child displays the whole of his power at the be- 
ginning of his task, but he is soon at the limit of his 
strength, and he needs to be occupied with something 
else. Be careful, then, to go gradually in your teaching. 
The lessons should be short at first and grow longer as 
the pupil's power of attention is developed. There 
should be a period of exercise, frequent commands of 
rest, and the interesting part of the work should be kept 
for the last of the lesson. 

Avoid teaching to the child too early general truths, 
formulas, rules, or anything which repels him because he 
does not easily comprehend. One who has paid atten- 
tion to the writings of Herbert Spencer cannot fail to be 
impressed with the emphasis which he places upon this 
idea. Avoid the parrot fashion. Do not cram a child's 
head with senseless maxims and axioms. He under- 
stands the reality. A child does not comprehend a joke 
for this reason. Elsewhere the attention of the reader 
will be called to the value of teaching children by the 
picture method, rather than the word. This is one of 
the quickest ways in which to hold the interest of a little 
child. We have found that it is a wise plan for the 
teacher to give what may be termed imitation work, 
which requires the constant attention of the child for a 



88 METHODS OF TEACHING GYMNASTICS. 

very short time. She may, for example, assume some 
posture and allow the child to copy that. This may be 
changed, and the child allowed to do as she does. Or 
the teacher may take a position, the child will study it 
for a minute ; the teacher then resumes the fundamental 
standing position and asks the child to do as she did. 
We have held the attention of the child, and aroused 
interest. It is also well for the teacher to take some gro- 
tesque position or assume some awkward attitude, and 
allow the child to associate with this imitation work the 
element of fun or play. 

The exterior signs which are characteristic of the at- 
tention of a child are rarely the same exterior signs 
which announce attention in the man or the adult. The 
man who thinks very frequently clasps the hands back 
of the body, walks up and down the room with the head 
bent forward. If he places his attention more directly 
upon the subject, he will frequently stand still, fold the 
arms in front, and drop the head still farther forward, or 
he may place the hand upon the forehead. We do not 
observe in a child similar signs of attention. It is 
impossible for a small boy or a small girl to think and 
remain immovable. The eyes will wander to the right 
or the left, some part of the body will move, and I 
know of one small boy who would fail in doing his 
sums in arithmetic if he were not permitted to chew 
the end of his lead pencil. In short, the child has 
need of movement, even when he is studying, and I 
should not allow the teacher to prevent all action if this 
is the nature of the little one. There is need of move- 
ment ; therefore do not prevent it. No woman who has 



ATTENTION. 89 

forgotten the nature of a child, or has forgotten what she 
used to do, should be permitted to teach boys and girls. 
Do not misunderstand me when I say that the child 
should be allowed to fidget while at work. There are 
exceptions to all rules, and I do not believe that the 
child should approach the movements of one who has 
St. Vitus' dance, but I would not shut off all movement 
from the thinking child. 

The stimulants of attention, or the methods of buying 
interest, should be discussed. I believe there is not an 
educational institution of any importance in America 
that does not sanction the giving of premiums — in other 
words, the buying of attention and interest by gifts and 
honors. This is all right to a certain extent, but I do 
not believe that the interest of the class in gymnastics 
or of the individual should be purchased by the offer of 
a medal or reward ; neither do I agree with that teacher 
who feels that she must compel the child, by threats or 
by the rod, to take the gymnastic movements or to excel 
in any bodily exercise. It is far better that the subject 
itself should be so presented by the teacher that the at- 
tention and interest will be aroused, and I know that a 
good teacher of gymnastics can do this without attempt- 
ing to buy the interest of the scholar with promises of 
reward. 

How to create interest is a study, and the success of 
any teacher will depend, to a great extent, upon this, 
what has been called by some, knack. Affection for the 
teacher will arouse interest and stimulate attention, and 
all teachers should at least have and hold the good-will 
of their pupils. Pleasure is a most powerful stimulant 



90 METHODS OF TEACHING GYMNASTICS. 

to effort, and the lesson that is pleasing will greatly 
stimulate the pupils. It has often been said that the 
Swedish system of gymnastics would fail in this country 
because it lacks the very essential element of interest. 
I believe that any good, energetic, wide-awake teacher 
can teach the Swedish system of gymnastics, and arouse 
as much interest as the teacher who gives her time en- 
tirely to the merits of the American plan. This was 
noticeable in the work of Miss Jennie Ireson, of Bos- 
ton, who teaches in the schools of some of the adjoining 
cities the pure Swedish system, and in the public schools 
of another city what may be termed the American sys- 
tem. The little children were trained in the former 
method, and I have never seen happier, more interested 
children than I saw in her classes. The work was well 
done, well taught, while the children seemed to be in- 
spired by the enthusiasm of the teacher. 

We must bear in mind that if the class is not inter- 
ested, or has not the power of placing its attention upon 
the work, there must be a cause. Let us, therefore, look 
for the cause and remove it, before attempting anything 
else. Simplicity, clearness, cleanness of exposition, will 
have a happy effect on the dispositions of the scholars 
in the class. We know that the tone of voice or attitude 
of the teacher will also arouse great interest in the work. 
These are but little things, but they will contribute 
greatly toward exciting the interest and holding the at- 
tention of those who learn a lesson. 

I do not believe that we should always attempt to 
make everything agreeable and attractive. The children 
must understand that there is another side to this work, 



ATTENTION. 91 

and that they must strive to overcome those obstacles 
which are not pleasing to them, in order that they 
may be better prepared to meet the world and the 
adverse criticisms which will be brought to bear upon 
them later in life. There are two sides to this question, 
and the child should know them both, but the successful 
teachers in the world have been those who understood 
the art of arousing interest and holding the attention. 

Curiosity will always hold the attention of the class. 
The teacher who says to the pupils in her gymnastic 
class, " I want to show you a new exercise," will at once 
hold their attention, their curiosity. " Happy are those 
teachers who have to do with intelligences naturally 
curious, but especially happy are those who know how 
to excite curiosity and keep it active. For this purpose 
we must skilfully appeal to the tastes of a child and favor 
them, yet without overtaxing them." * " Eagerness to 
derive advantage from a taste is often a cause of our kill- 
ing it." f We should not smother the curiosity of a 
child by satiating it too soon. We must bear in mind 
that the teacher of gymnastics does not come in such 
close contact with the children as do the teachers of the 
mental branches, with whom the child spends several 
hours a day. I should therefore advise the teacher of 
physical training to meet the children outside of the 
school, take them on walks, if necessary, allow them to 
visit the gymnasiums in the vicinity, and to give them 
once in a while practical talks on the care of the body. 



* Payne. 

f De Saussure. 



92 METHODS OF TEACHING GYMNASTICS. 

In this way she will know the child better and will 
come into closer touch with the parents. 

To arouse the attention give the children something 
new. Do not expect to succeed if you give a child the 
same work year after year. I know of no man who 
can equal in this respect Dr. Hitchcock of Amherst 
College, who could successfully teach the same dumb- 
bell drill for four years. It was not so much the arrange- 
ment of exercises that made this work popular, but the 
doctor himself. I have heard one Amherst man state 
that there was not another physician in America who 
could arouse and hold the interest of his pupils as 
could Dr. Hitchcock, whose name is synonymous with 
kindness and goodness. Avoid falling into a rut. 
Change the way of giving a command ; suddenly stop 
an exercise and give one of another character. We 
may be violating, perhaps, some law laid down by the 
advocate of some other system of gymnastics, but I do 
not believe that any harm will result. 

It is essential that the class should be kept good 
natured. When any faculty of a child is wearied, it is 
necessary to grant it some respite and make an appeal to 
other faculties. The mind of a child is just as eager for 
a change as that of an adult. Nothing is so difficult 
to listen to and to follow as the monotonous teaching of 
some of our instructors. Give to the class a few things, 
or only one thing, at a time, drill them a while upon 
this before passing to another. Children, as well as 
adults, will soon become dissatisfied with poor teaching, 
and they will discuss in their own little way a gymnas- 
tic exercise that is poorly taught and half learned. Mr. 



ATTENTION. 93 

Sully says he would be a foolish teacher who gave a 
child a number of disconnected things to do at a time, 
or who should insist on keeping his mind bent on the 
same subject for an indefinite period. I would say to 
the teacher, Do not become verbose, do not allow your 
thought to overflow its limits, do not talk too much. A 
child does not come to the gymnasium to be preached 
to for three quarters of its lesson. 

Remember that action is essential in the education of 
a child. If talking or preaching or lecturing is to be 
done, it should be when the children are in the school- 
rooms and seated. The story of the Esquimaux, as told 
by Miss Edgeworth, is interesting. Newly arrived in 
London, they had visited in one day all the monuments 
of the capital, under the conduct of a guide who was in 
too much of a hurry, and who was like too many teachers 
of gymnastics. On their return, when they were asked 
what they had seen, they did not know what to say. It 
was with difficulty that one of them, repeatedly urged 
to speak, finally aroused himself from his torpor and 
said, shaking his head, "Too much noise, too much 
smoke, too much houses, too much men, too much 
everything. ,, According to M. Breal, " So far as pos- 
sible, the teacher should keep his position, holding the 
class under his eyes and requiring that all eyes should be 
turned toward him. The instruction is not to begin 
until the children have taken the erect attitude. The 
lesson should not be continued until the class become 
impatient. As soon as inattention appears, the teacher 
stops. A means of reanimating the class, but a means 
which should not be abused, is to change the position of 



94 METHODS OF TEACHING GYMNASTICS. 

the class and begin a new exercise at the word of com- 
mand. The pupils should always respond, if necessary, 
but they should not be accustomed to hear the explosive 
or the loud voice. Their ears soon become accustomed 
to the explosions of the voice, and then they are good 
for nothing." 

Attention is stronger in the morning than in the af- 
ternoon, and it is stronger during the first hours of the 
session than later, although I have found that the first 
hour on Monday morning, or even Monday itself, is the 
hard part of the week. It is better to put on interesting 
work for Monday and for Friday, rather than to give it 
in the middle of the week. The teacher must take into 
account these differences, in order to meet them and to 
regulate the studies. Kant says : "Distractions ought 
never to be tolerated, at least in school, for they end by 
degenerating into habits. The finest talents are lost in 
a man who is subject to distractions. Inattentive chil- 
dren only half hear, reply wholly at random, and do 
not know what they read." Cannot this rule be just as 
readily applied to some of our teachers of gymnastics as 
to children ? 



CHAPTER VIII. 

DISCIPLINE, OR SCHOOL. GOVERNMENT. 

It has been said that the disciplinarian, as the teacher, 
is born and not made. There is truth in the statement, 
but it does not follow that the disciplinarian cannot be 
made. There are rules formulated that will be of service 
to any teacher. The man or woman fortunate enougli 
to be included in the class of those who are born teach- 
ers does not depend so much on these laws, although 
unconsciously applying them. On the other hand, the 
unfortunate who belongs to the class of those who are 
not born teachers should know the rules that are of the 
greatest importance in teaching. 

Discipline should be enforced in any class. In the 
gymnasium it is almost of vital importance that the 
teacher have order. Much of the success of the leader 
depends upon good ruling. One may be called upon to 
give instruction to a class of small boys. To know some- 
thing of the nature of this small American, visit the 
gymnasium some day and study him. Full of life, en- 
ergy, and vitality, it is almost impossible to keep him 
within bounds. He will disobey commands without 
meaning to do so, because of the surplus of animal life, v 
causing the inexperienced teacher, who is apt to lay all 
this trouble to the natural depravity of boys, to lose her ^ 
temper and scold. It will require patience and tact to 

95 



96 METHODS OF TEACHING GYMNASTICS. 

handle a class of boys. The teacher should understand 
them — the men, remembering that they were once boys, 
and the women, that they at some time had small 
brothers. The teacher should be wide-awake, alert, see- 
ing everything, forgetting self, and very positive. 

As a rule, we can lay disorder, confusion, irregularity, 
and accidents to the teacher, and not to the pupil. Even 
if it is not the fault of the teacher, it will reflect back 
upon the management of the gymnasium. The small 
boy is apt to break away — in other words, to uncon- 
sciously violate the rules. One of the best plans of cir- 
cumventing this is to remove temptation from him. 
The temptation may be in this form : The boy is permit- 
ted to go to the gymnasium before the allotted time for 
the lesson, in which case there is neither teacher nor 
assistant to supervise. He can then use any piece of 
apparatus he wishes. Several may struggle for the bar 
or the rings, and it not infrequently happens that a 
child is hurt at this time. Again, instructors are care- 
less about leaving the apparatus so that it can be easily 
handled by the boys. All rings, bars, ropes, and poles 
should be either removed or pulled up. The ticks should 
be packed away in one corner, and everything that is 
within the reach of the members of the class should be 
disposed of or fastened, with the exception of the light 
apparatus and the chest weights. If the boys cannot use 
the heavy appliances they will go for the light. They 
find pleasure in pulling at the chest weights, letting the 
carriages drop, in which case they are frequently broken 
or cracked ; or they will remove the dumb bells from the 
racks and skate around the room on them. 



DISCIPLINE, OR SCHOOL GOVERNMENT. 97 

There should be a certain number of rules made, these 
rules to apply to all classes in the gymnasium ; but a rule 
is worse than useless if it is not enforced. It is well to 
have but a few of these regulations, but there must be 
one rule to govern these, namely, enforce them. There 
may, some day, come to the class the sons or the daugh- 
ters of the principal, trustee, or some professor in your 
school. They are in their own, and too often in their 
parents' minds, privileged. They think, because their 
father is at the head of the school, or the mother is em- 
ployed as a teacher, that they are entitled to do a little 
more than the others. Consequently, they are hard to 
manage. If that boy violates a rule his neighbor can do 
the same. Because the first lad is backed up by influ- 
ence, he is not therefore entitled to privileges that should 
not be extended to others. 

A teacher will often be called upon to deal with the 
parents, in which case she should use patience, tact, and, 
above all, keep her temper. The boy who is not in the 
habit of obeying at home will not do so at school. The 
teacher must be prepared to deal with this specimen. 
No instructor can successfully cope with the members 
of such a class unless she has made a study of boys, 
understands their nature, has a great deal of patience, 
and is able to meet them and to deal with them as she 
should. 

11 Children rarely love those who spoil them, and they 
never trust them. Their keen young sense detects the 
false note in the character, and draws its own conclusions, 
which are very generally just." Herbert Spencer says : 
" Let the history of your school work typify a little the 



98 METHODS OF TEACHING GYMNASTICS. 

history of our political rule — at the outset autocratic con- 
trol where control is needful; by and by an incipient 
constitutionalism, in which the liberty of the subject 
gains some express recognition ; successive extensions of 
this liberty of the subject, gradually ending in paternal 
abdication." I may also add, in the abdication of the 
teacher. " If that child is unhappy who has none of his 
rights respected, equally wretched is the little despot 
who has more than his own rights — who has never been 
taught to respect the rights of others, and whose only 
conception of life and living is that it is an absolute 
monarchy, of which he is the sole ruler." The teacher 
must be prepared to meet just such a child. It may be 
of assistance to the young teacher to call to mind some 
case in which she has the power to control either boys or 
girls. It may be one, or it may be more. Is this control 
due to fear, or to love ? If it is possible for a teacher to 
manage one, it will also be possible for her to manage 
many. 

The teacher must not be a coward. Unfortunately, too 
many of our instructors are timid. They are either 
afraid to hurt the feelings of a scholar, or they fear the 
consequences if they interfere with the children of in- 
fluential parents. As a teacher or a director, do not be 
afraid to assert your own rights. There is always some 
scholar in your class of whom you will stand somewhat 
in awe. It may be because he is disagreeable ; it may be 
because he has a little of the bull-dog element about him ; 
it may be that you can get along better by letting him 
alone. He will very soon find this out, and the other 
boys will notice it. The matter will be discussed ; it 



DISCIPLINE, OR SCHOOL GOVERNMENT. 99 

will later on cause trouble in the school. The first case, 
therefore, will decide a great deal for the new teacher. 
This must be treated quickly and firmly. Always hear 
the boy's side of the story, if there is any doubt about 
his wrong-doing. Do not be too quick and hasty." Do 
not punish a child without first permitting him to say 
why he did this or to give some reason, unless you know 
that his act was a strict violation of the rules. Under no 
conditions lose your temper. If you do, do not attempt , 
to punish the boy at that time. The members of classes 
take delight in "rattling" the teacher. It is a pleasure 
to boys to do this. They will try in every way, they 
will test the teacher, or, as Professor Parker says, " they 
will puncture your moral anatomy with pins, if they 
find that there is an opportunity." A teacher can estab- 
lish a reputation after the very first command is given 
to a class. For example, she directs them to fall in in 
single file. They take their places. One boy is late ; he 
dilly-dallies, evidently heard the command, but did not 
obey it. This is the time for the teacher to act. She 
promptly calls this young man to account, and in such a * 
way that it leaves no doubt in his mind or in the minds 
of the class about her intentions. The voice need not be 
entirely devoid of kindness, but it must be positive, v 
When the teacher says to the boys, " I want you to do so 
and so," that must settle the question. 

There is a custom adopted by some teachers of calling 
to the platform the scholars who are out of order. Doing 
this punishes the honest ones, while the dishonest ones v 
go free. Those who are truthful receive punishment as 
a reward ; those who lie are enabled to go free because 



100 METHODS OF TEACHING GYMNASTICS. 

of their falsehood. Sending from the room is a method 
of punishment that should not be used a great deal, 
although sending a boy home from the gymnasium will 
frequently bring good results. The child who is sent 
from the gymnasium back to the classroom may find 
time to make up some study, to loiter in the halls, or to 
play, and will very likely present his own case to his 
teacher, who will not have the time or inclination to 
hear the instructor's side of the story. Again, every 
boy who is sent from the gymnasium to the regular 
teacher carries additional care to her. The instructor in 
gymnastics should assume all this responsibility, and 
should be liable for the government of her own classes. 
The principal of one school was in the habit of saying 
to his gymnastic director, "If your pupils are out of 
order, send them at once to their classrooms, and the 
regular teacher will remain with them after school." 
This was tried a few times, until the gymnastic instruc- 
tor ascertained that he was creating a strong feeling 
against him, because he compelled other teachers to 
remain after school to punish those who did wrong in 
the gymnasium. If you cannot deal with or punish 
your own pupils, do not teach gymnastics. 

It is not necessary in this chapter to discuss the 
question of corporal punishment. In my own experi- 
ence, I have never had to "whip." The relations be- 
tween myself and pupils have never called for blows. 

There is a subject that it will be well to discuss under 
this heading, namely, sarcasm. The real significance of 
this strong, harsh Greek term is to tear the flesh, like 
dogs. Caroline B. Le Row says : " By easy and natural 



DISCIPLINE, OR SCHOOL GOVERNMENT. 101 

transfer, this becomes identified with intellectual and 
verbal laceration of a corresponding character. It is the 
expression of contempt, anger, jealousy, bitterness, dis- 
appointment, of malice, hardness, and all uncharitable- 
ness, in language more or less disguised, in a form of 
words which in letter may not offend, but which in spirit 
are as objectionable as they can be made. The relation 
of the teacher to the pupil is that of youth depending 
upon maturity, weakness upon strength, awkwardness 
upon skill, inexperience upon expertness, ignorance upon 
wisdom. Can anything be more revolting than for this 
superiority of age and strength and experience to brow- 
beat youth, weakness, and ignorance?" A sarcastic 
teacher can never be a teacher in the true sense of the 
word. She lacks that element which is found in every 
great instructor in the world, kindness ; and although 
the scholars may learn and make some progress, never- 
theless there is between the teacher and the pupil a 
barrier that will never be entirely broken down. The 
teacher is heartily disliked by the scholars, who fear her 
bitter tongue. There are times when certain forms of 
sarcasm can be used. There is in every class a mean boy. 
To him, it may be that this verbal laceration of the 
flesh will bring good results. But, as a rule, avoid sar- 
casm, so far as it is possible. It is the weapon used more 
by the young teacher. The student from college, who 
hears a great deal of this among his fellow students, is 
apt to use the same weapon when he takes charge of a 
school. Parents are frequently too sarcastic when cor- 
recting their children. It is neither wise nor safe. Cor- 
poral punishment is less obnoxious than cutting words 



102 METHODS OF TEACHING GYMNASTICS. 

and sarcasm. Bodily pain is very soon forgotten, but 
shaming a person hurts the soul, and is never forgotten. 

A few years ago a German newspaper contained the 
statement that a boy had committed suicide because his 
teacher called him a thief. He took an apple that 
belonged to another boy. Jean Paul Richter, who under- 
stood the child, said : " What is to be followed as a rule 
of prudence, yea, of justice, toward grown-up people, 
should be much more observed toward children. One 
should never say, for instance, 'You are a liar,' or even, 
'You are a bad boy,' instead of, 'You have told an un- 
truth,' or ' You have done wrong.' " Children usually 
feel when they have committed a fault without being 
told, and certainly they do not wish to have it, as the 
boys say, "ground in." If it is necessary to say some- 
thing, the wrong should not be made greater than it is. 
Never brand a culprit with an opprobrious name. The 
teacher should be very careful about making remarks 
that will hurt the feelings of pupils. Edward Eggleston 
says: "The test of a teacher is efficiency, not only in 
teaching, but in her dealings with others ; not as show- 
ing that she is able to make an examination, but the 
final result she can produce in the character of those 
who come from under her hand. This efficiency is not 
of the sort that can be counted upon always to work an 
increase of salary, but the ability to leave a lasting mark 
on the mind and character of the pupil. It is an un- 
mistakable sign of a real teacher, and the source of this 
power lies, not in the teacher's knowledge, but deeper, 
in the fiber of his character." 

One of the most important objects of school discipline 



DISCIPLINE, OR SCHOOL GOVERNMENT. 103 

is the formation of the habit of self-control. The power 
to govern well is an essential quality of every successful 
teacher. The opinions of the scholars themselves should 
be used, so far as possible, as an aid to the teacher. A boy 
is often influenced by the judgment of his fellows more 
than by the decisions of the teacher. There are, in every 
school, college, or university, leaders in right-doing, and 
ring-leaders in wrong-doing. The teacher should capti- 
vate one set, and the capture of the others will assist in 
bringing good government. Eternal vigilance is the 
price of order in the schoolroom. The teacher should 
have an eye like a hawk, and be quick to detect noise. 
"Disorder is the sure sequel of the teacher's failure in 
sight or hearing ; but even with the senses good there 
may be absent the watchful employment of them. This 
is, in itself, a natural incapacity for the work of teach- 
ing. A teacher must not merely be sensitive to in- 
cipient disorder ; he must read the result of his teaching 
in the eyes of his pupils. By organization and arrange- 
ment, the occasions of disorder are avoided. The reasons 
for repressions and discipline should, so far as possible, be 
made intelligible to those concerned, and should be made 
referable solely to the general good." The teacher will be 
able, in many cases, to anticipate disorder. If, from ex- 
perience, she knows that certain movements are attended 
with confusion, she can ward off the difficulty. She 
should encourage truth by rewarding full and frank con- 
fessions with a remission of penalties, so far as consistent. 
Severity is one of the chief causes of deceit. Prevention 
is better than punishment. Children should be trained 
to a general habit of prompt obedience in minor matters. 



104 METHODS OF TEACHING GYMNASTICS. 

Penalties and punishments must be certain, and must 
seem to be the natural consequence of wrong action. 
Strong terms of reproof should be sparing, in order to be 
effective. Still more sparing ought to be the terms of 
anger. Do not make cast-iron rules, with unchangeable 
penalties. There can be no government where there is 
no punishment. Swett says: "The chief means of 
preventing the necessity of punishment are active and 
pleasant employment, the personal influence of the 
teacher, the public opinion of the scholars. The punish- 
ment must be varied according to the temperament of 
the child. A frown will act on one, separation from 
companions on another, neglect and coldness on a third, 
public reprimand on a fourth." If the teacher has a 
case that calls for severe punishment, it is better for her 
to consult the parents before taking action. 

Discipline. M. Buisson says : " There should never 
be irony, never contradictions and paradoxes, never 
anything which exalts the teacher at the expense of the 
pupil ; much indulgence and no trace of weakness ; 
nothing exciting or brusque ; an inflexible firmness and 
a paternal gentleness ; inexhaustible simplicity in all 
things ; finally, a constant effort, which becomes insen- 
sible in the course of time, to come down to his plane, 
to understand him, to sustain him, to love him." 

Obedience is one of the important things for a child's 
character. It is an important agent in the development 
of a child, and will result from good teaching. Many of 
our instructors are fatigued, not by the teaching itself, 
but by the enforcing of discipline. 

"The punishment of the child may be physical or it 



DISCIPLINE, OR SCHOOL GOVERNMENT. 105 

niay be moral ; moral where we act on the child's nat- 
ural desire for love and affection, physical when we pun- 
ish him by denying him what he wants or giving him 
what he does not desire." 

Contempt is a strong punishment. Kant says : " The 
powers of the mind are best cultivated when we do 
things for ourselves. The duties of a child toward him- 
self are cleanliness, purity, sobriety, and the most im- 
portant safeguard of all is the possession of a certain 
self-respect which he values beyond everything else." 
The teacher herself can learn from this quotation. There 
is truth in the maxim that the teacher who has not 
great respect for herself will not receive it from others. 

A characteristic of the school of humanists, which in- 
cluded Locke, Rabelais, Basedow, and others, is their 
preference of kindness to severity, and their condemna- 
tion of the cruelty and harshness which disfigured the 
schools of the Middle Ages. They believed that the 
principal method of compelling the attention of children 
and inducing them to learn with pleasure was preferable 
to pain. Locke says : " The usual lazy and short way, 
by chastisement and the rod, which is the only instru- 
ment of government that teachers generally know or 
ever think of, is the most unfit of any to be used in edu- 
cation. I cannot think that any correction is useful to a 
child where the shame of suffering for having done 
amiss does not work upon him more than the pain. 
Such a sort of slavish discipline makes a slavish temper. 
Beating them, and all other sorts of slavish and corporal 
punishments, are not a discipline fit to be used in the 
education of those we would have wise, good, and in- 



106 METHODS OF TEACHING GYMNASTICS. 

genuous men, therefore very rarely to be applied, and 
that only in great occasions and cases of extremity." 

If a child tells a lie, he should be treated with con- 
tempt. Let him know that he will not be believed in 
the future and that you have lost your faith and confi- 
dence in him. The child punished when he misbehaves 
and rewarded when he does well acts, not for the good 
itself, but for the reward which he may receive. 

Montaigne discountenanced severe discipline, and es- 
pecially corporal chastisement. He says : " This edu- 
cation must be regulated by strict mildness, not as it is 
now. Instead of tempting children to the letters, 
nothing is shown them but what is terrifying and cruel. 
Put aside violence and force. There is nothing, in my 
mind, which so degrades and stupefies a naturally fine 
and noble disposition. What a way of awakening in 
the tender and timorous mind of children an aptitude 
for learning, to lead them to it with a whip in hand ! 
Unrighteous and hurtful system ! " 

MISTAKES IN TEACHING. 

Many of the following are from different authors : 

It is a mistake to confound giving information or evi- 
dence with tale-bearing. Wise teachers never seek occa- 
sion for making an investigation of a petty nature. 

It is a mistake to try to teach without good order. 

It is a mistake to confound securing order with main- 
taining order. 

It is a mistake to try to startle a class into being or- 
derly. 

It is a mistake to call for order in general terms, how- 
ever quietly it may be done. 



DISCIPLINE, OR SCHOOL GOVERNMENT. 107 

It is a mistake to scold an entire class for the fault 
of one. 

It is a mistake to call to the platform all who have 
been out of order. 

It is a mistake to be demonstrative in maintaining dis- 
cipline. One teacher secures the silent cooperation by 
the natural laws of good organization, careful fore- 
thought, and by a quiet self-control. 

It is a mistake to be variable in discipline. Confidence 
is necessary on the part of both teacher and pupils. A 
threat implies that the teacher does not trust the pupils, 
and prevents the class from having sympathy with her. 
The teacher should anticipate the movements that cause 
trouble, and forewarn the class. The boy who does be- 
hind the teacher's back what he will not do to her face 
is a coward. 

It is a mistake to make too many rules. Some teach- 
ers make so many that they cannot remember them 
themselves. Their pupils forget them, too, and violate 
them without intending any wrong. 

It is a mistake to make rules that are not enforced. 
The breaking of a rule should be considered a serious 
offense. Pupils who are old enough should have reasons 
for rules explained to them, so far as it enables them to 
see their justness. Indeed, judicious teachers may al- 
low their scholars to assist them in framing rules. 

It is a mistake to teach too much in a single lesson. 

The teacher cannot furnish rules for every emergency, 
but can inculcate principles to be applied when the 
emergency arises. 

Physical exercises, practiced frequently, save time by 



108 METHODS OF TEACHING GYMNASTICS. 

improving the discipline and preventing irritation to 
both teacher and pupil. 

It is a mistake to make promises and not keep them. 

It is a mistake to say that you will do, and then 
do not. 

It is a mistake to judge before hearing. Hold an 
angry tongue, and think before speaking. 

It is a mistake to give gymnasium work as punish- 
ment. 

It is a mistake to allow the class to be idle. 

It is a mistake to pay attention to the bright scholars 
in the class, and neglect the stupid ones. 

It is a mistake to talk too much. 

It is a mistake to be too indefinite in teaching. 

The teacher should not stand in awe of her pupils, 
She should never sanction tale-bearing. 

It is a mistake for the teacher not to keep a record of 
what she is to give. 

It is a mistake to regard knowledge as of greater im- 
portance than the child. 

It is a mistake not to let children know that suc- 
cess costs something. 

It is a mistake to confound fame with reputation. 

It is a mistake to complain or grumble too much. If 
there is one teacher who, more than any other, is certain 
to be disliked by pupils, parents, trustees, it is the invet- 
erate grumbler. She would dislike herself if she had 
the honor of her own acquaintance. She does not know 
how tiresome this habit becomes. No teacher who 
scolds a class or grumbles can ever have the sympathy 
of her pupils, and without it she can never control them 



DISCIPLINE, OR SCHOOL GOVERNMENT. 109 

or secure their best efforts in their school-work. She 
who recognizes, appreciates, and judiciously commends 
the feeblest efforts of her pupils will be certain, by this 
means, to induce greater zeal and earnestness. 

RELATIONS OF THE TEACHER TO THE PARENT. 

It is a mistake to show temper in dealing with a 
parent. 

It is a mistake not to hear the parent's side of the 
story. 

It is a mistake to express opinions too freely where a 
child has done wrong. 

It is a mistake to dispute with an angry parent before 
the class or the scholar. 

It is a mistake to make spiteful remarks before the 
class about the notes received from parents. 

It is a mistake to make a remark that will insinuate 
that the parents are careless in the rearing of their 
children. 

It is a mistake to neglect opportunities for arousing 
the active cooperation of parents in your work. 

It is a mistake to let any insinuation made about you 
by parents go unanswered. 

It is a mistake to discuss school affairs too freely with 
parents. Remember that the interest of the parents in 
the school is in proportion to the love they have for their 
children. 

Rousseau, in his advice to teachers, says : "Teach a 
little, and that little well." Pestalozzi says : " I will 
put the education of the child into the hands of the 
mothers ; I will transplant it from the school to the 
house. But how can a mother teach what she does not 



110 METHODS OF TEACHING GYMNASTICS. 

understand?" This rule will apply well to the intro- 
duction of home gymnastics. The teacher should en- 
deavor to arouse in the parents enough interest in the 
work to have them require the children to do the exer- 
cises morning and night, just as they would care for the 
hair, the hands, or the teeth. But parents do not know 
the exercises ; they think they have done their whole 
duty by the children when in peremptory language 
they command them to "stand up straight" or to 
"hold the head up." It is an important principle in 
education that children should not be educated for their 
present condition, but for the future of the human race ; 
this education can be furthered by the teaching which a 
child will receive from the father and the mother. That 
parent who places the entire responsibility for the physi- 
cal, mental, and moral education of children upon 
teachers is making a serious mistake. 



CHAPTEE IX. 

ANALYSIS.— SYNTHESIS. —REFLEX ACTS. 

There are two related methods of teaching, known as 
the analytic and the synthetic. In the former method 
analysis is used. By this term is meant the breaking up 
or loosening of the parts that make the whole — the dis- 
secting, separating, or dissolving of the elements. An- 
alysis can be applied to any complex or any compound 
exercise. 

The analytic method is valuable, and should be used 
by teachers of gymnastics. G. Stanley Hall is of the 
opinion that the day of the analytic school is past, and 
that in the future we shall deal more with synthesis. It 
has been found, nevertheless, that analysis of gymnastic 
exercises will assist teachers. Illustration : Place in the 
hands of a child a watch ; he is not satisfied until he has 
seen the a wheels go 'round." Nor is this sufficient ; he 
is anxious to take the watch apart to see how it is made. 
When this is done, the child finds the various parts of 
the mechanism ; he has to some extent analyzed the- 
watch. An instructor when teaching writing divides 
the letters into straight and curved lines. The child is 
then drilled upon the parts. But before he can put them 
together or rearrange the elements, he has been taught 
to make them. Reading is taught by words, words by 
letters or sounds. Thus we go from the whole to the 

in 



112 METHODS OF TEACHING GYMNASTICS. 

part. Ill grammar, the sentence is subdivided into its 
parts, its parts are separated into smaller divisions, which 
are finally reduced to the individual portions or parts of 
speech. In gymnastics, take, for an illustration, this 
exercise, which consists of the following parts of the 
gymnastic alphabet : Turning the head to the left, 
swinging the wand to the front, stepping the right foot 
to the right. This is the exercise as a whole, and is seen 
in the illustration (Fig. 5). The parts are : first, turn- 
ing the head to the left ; second, swinging the wand to 
the front ; third, stepping the right foot to the right. 
As an exercise the movements cannot be well joined 
until they have been thoroughly learned by the pupil, 
therefore the teacher should reduce the posture, as a 
whole, to its simplest movements, and teach them. 
This may be called the analytic method. 

In the synthetic method of gymnastics, we begin with 
the parts, or the movements of the alphabet, and pro- 
ceed to the complete exercise, or the whole. At times 
the two methods are so nearly alike that they are con-, 
fusing. In beginning with analysis we end with synthe- 
sis, and in beginning with synthesis we end with 
analysis. To illustrate. The teacher has in mind an 
exercise that may be called compound ; the pupils do not 
know what this is. The teacher will explain each part 
of the drill, direct the scholars to take them, and then, 
by putting all together, make a complete whole. As in 
the illustration, the instructor will first drill the class in 
the stepping motion until it is mastered, then the 
arm movements, finally the head exercise. This may 
be termed synthesis. 



ANALYSIS. — SYNTHESIS. — REFLEX ACTS. 113 

The gymnastic instructor who has time to read the 
various works on methods of teaching will be inter- 
ested in the inductive and deductive methods of teach- 
ing. As we shall not use these terms, we shall not take 
the space to describe them or to dwell at length upon 
their meaning. 

Automatic Movements and Reflex Action. The terms 
automatic and reflex action will be so often used that it 
is necessary to explain their meanings here. The 
authorities on physiology and psychology agree that the 
terms overlap each other to such a degree that they are 
almost synonymous. There is a slight difference between 
the terms, but it is so slight that we shall not make a 
distinction in this work. 

If the mind were occupied with every movement we 
make, we could do but one thing at a time. If one 
started out for a walk he would be able to think of 
nothing but how to take the steps; he could therefore 
neither talk nor observe. If one tried to take notes at a 
lecture he could do nothing but pay attention to the 
writing, if this was in charge of the mind itself. 
Women can both sew and talk at the same time, but if 
it happens that there is a knot in the thread, they will 
cease talking for a brief period until the knot is untied. 

Actions which are repeated many times are referred 
back to a nerve or spinal center, so that the mind itself 
can be used for other duties. In walking, we are un- 
conscious that we move or act, because the walking is 
looked out for by this nerve center. If we have learned 
to walk badly, the center which controls this movement 
does not worry over this, but it sees that the movement 



114 METHODS OF TEACHING GYMNASTICS.- 

is executed as it has been learned. Hence the necessity 
of doing well whatever we do. The instructor in gym- 
nastics should make many of her gymnastic movements 
automatic, in order that the mind may be given to the 
control or the teaching of the class. Every person who 
has attempted to teach an exercise that has not been 
well learned knows that, by dividing the attention 
between the movements which are poorly executed and 
the instruction of the class, both will suffer. By refer- 
ring to any good work on physiology, the teacher will be 
able to study and learn more of these two terms. 



CHAPTER X. 

WHY DO WE TEACH?— WHO SHALL TEACH? 

Let us spend a few minutes upon the first question, 
Why do we teach gymnastics? The answer may be 
given in a few words : because the needs of the pupil 
demand it. We are then confronted with another ques- 
tion, What are these needs ? They are : (1) better 
health ; (2) greater strength of body, properly distrib- 
uted ; (3) better physiques ; (4) grace of movement ; 
(5) self-control ; (6) self-reliance ; (7) nerve and brain 
training ; (8) memory exercises ; (9) mental rest ; 
(10) recreation. The teacher will find, by referring to 
the German, Swedish, and Delsarte systems, that each 
claims the same results. Let us take time briefly to con- 
sider some of these results. 

Better health. That all persons wish to be healthy is 
a fact. That all persons are not healthy is a fact. Of 
the two sexes, more women are sickly than men, more 
doctors make good incomes by treating women than by 
treating men. There is a reason for this. Women have 
neither the health nor the strength that men have, and 
yet no one will deny that they are called on to fulfill 
duties that require both. That the health is improved 
by a proper course in gymnastic drill is true. 

Greater strength. People are apt to confound health 
and strength. The terms are not synonymous. The 

115 



116 METHODS OF TEACHING GYMNASTICS. 

strength of the body is not proportionately distributed. 
A man may have enormous arms and chest, powerful 
legs, and a weak waist. The strength of the person may 
be compared to a chain. If one link is defective, the 
whole chain is weak. So in the body — unless the parts 
are so strengthened that one will assist the other, the 
strength is not what it might be. A man may have 
great strength but poor health. 

It is astonishing that so many of our giants die 
quickly. Men who make their living by lifting heavy 
weights, wrestling, and boxing, go down suddenly, 
many of them dying of lung trouble. We understand 
that dissipation has much to do with their sudden de- 
mise. The statement is made to show that the enor- 
mous strengh which these men acquire does not indicate 
perfect health. 

Better physiques. We admit that the physique is im- 
proved by physical training, but we have not yet reached 
that position in our science or art where we can change 
it to any great extent, unless the training begins with 
the child and is permanently continued. The boy is 
apt to be like one of the parents. If he inherits from 
the mother a slender, slight physique, he is liable to pos- 
sess it always. The round-shouldered youth, or one 
with drooping head, does not often get rid of these de- 
fects. Many of our teachers of physical training do not 
show the results of their gymnastic drill in their per- 
sonal appearance. 

The point now arises, Does any method of physical 
training that is advocated to-day produce a perfect 
physique? The answer is, No. It does not follow, how- 



WHY DO WE TEACH? — WHO SHALL TEACH? 117 

ever, that the body is not bettered by a system of rational 
gymnastics. If the bone growth is established, it will 
be well-nigh impossible to straighten the spine, arch the 
chest, and overcome some of the physical defects. Yet 
it is true that the muscular system is invigorated, the 
action of the heart strengthened, the capacity of the 
lungs increased, the muscular coats of the arteries and 
veins improved, and the whole physical condition bet- 
tered ; but there is not that change in the form that we 
look and hope for. 

Grace of movement. All systems claim this to be a 
resultant. If one could be graceful by wishing, he 
would ask it. A person can acquire muscular control, 
which is the same as grace, by paying attention to 
rational physical training. This does not mean entirely 
light work or heavy work, but a wise combination of the 
two. Some of the most graceful men are jugglers. It 
is seldom that we meet a tumbler who is not easy in his 
movements, while many of the bar men exhibit this 
grace. 

Self-control and self-reliance. While these are not the 
same, yet they are interlaced. One who can control 
himself to any great degree, who never shows emotion, 
who is calm and self-contained in the face of danger, 
who curbs his temper, is not cast down by grief, checks 
an angry word — in short, who can manage himself — 
exhibits self-control. All emotion is expressed by 
muscular movement, muscular movement is controlled 
by the will. The control of the muscles by the will is 
physical training of a certain order, it is physical educa- 
tion of the highest sense. It may be said that " man has 



118 METHODS OF TEACHING GYMNASTICS. 

never taken gymnastics in his life yet he never loses his 
self-control." True, but he has practiced this special 
form of physical education. 

Self-control is the mastery over the restless muscles of 
the body. It is essential in the teacher. She is called 
upon every hour of the day to hold herself in check. 

What is the loss of self-control? Visible emotion. 
How do we express any emotion but by muscular move- 
ment? Anger, sadness, joy, fear, jealousy are all shown 
in this way. When we are suddenly confronted with 
unpleasant news our muscles, like wild horses, at once 
slip from our control and we show by the face, if in no 
other way, that we are affected. 

The teacher, lawyer, minister, or public speaker should 
rely upon himself, should have confidence in his own 
ability, should be free from mannerisms, affectations, 
should have a good presence, strong voice, and " staying 
qualities." 

These are some of the results of physical training. 
Fortunate it is for us that the results of such an educa- 
tion are not only great strength, perfect health, and a 
fine physique. 

The author quotes from Prof. Eugene L. Richards, the 
director of the Yale Gymnasium : " The effect of exercise 
on the character is felt most of all on the will. This is 
very natural, for in all muscular exercise a certain 
amount of resistance has to be overcome, and the power 
which acts through the muscles to overcome this resist- 
ance is will power. Development of muscular strength 
is, therefore, to a certain extent development of 
will. It becomes development of the highest kind of 



WHY DO WE TEACH? — WHO SHALL TEACH? 119 

will, that of self-mastery, when to take exercise a nian 
resolutely overcomes the distaste for it." 

Mental rest and recreation. That certain forms of 
gymnastics will rest the brain and that children and 
adults find recreation in games and contests is true, but 
the gymnastics should be of the kind that do not require 
mental effort if the pupils are mentally fatigued. Do 
not give memory exercises to persons who have for some 
time used the brain. They can take simple movements 
and imitation work, and find pleasure in them too. A 
class undergoing a long examination will do better work 
if required to take a few arm and leg motions when the 
time is half over. This drill rests the brain. (See 
chapter on Swedish day's order.) 

Memory exercises. There are a number of drills that 
are interesting to pupils which may be termed memory 
exercises. They consist of exercises not shown but ex- 
plained. For example, the teacher describes a simple 
exercise and requests the pupils to execute it for her. 
They have not seen it but they will, according to their 
idea of what is meant, go through certain motions. 

The child thinks and acts according to the muscular 
translation of its thoughts, and draws with its little 
body the picture that is in its mind. If writing or draw- 
ing is of value as a means of education so will gymnas- 
tics be if taught in this manner. 

Example of a lesson in memory ivork. The teacher 
says: u On the count one raise the arms to the front, 
on the count two swing them out, on the count three 
slap them over the head, on the count four lower them 
to the side, ready, begin." 



120 METHODS OF TEACHING GYMNASTICS. 

Again the teacher may bring into action one or more 
sets of muscles or nerves in this way. The first exer- 
cise may be a head bending to the right, the second a com- 
bination of the head and arm movement, while the 
third will be the addition of a leg motion. All move- 
ments in the same direction are easier than those in dif- 
ferent directions. 

Another, form of teaching will be imitation, which 
differs from the memory method. Here there are no 
commands, as the child is obliged to look at the teacher, 
then imitate her. The instructor begins by taking some 
simple movement, which the child at once imitates. 
This plan will teach a child to observe. 

In drawing, good results depend upon the attention 
which a child pays to detail, so in imitation work the 
pupil is taught to look carefully and to place its own 
body in a similar position. 

Scholars will soon learn to make changes very rapidly. 
An eminent psychologist favored this plan of teaching. 

Another plan often used is for the teacher to read 
verses and let the children imitate the person or things 
represented in the poem. 

Bound work. This consists in giving a drill in gym- 
nastics after the plan of singing a round, like " Three 
Blind Mice." 

There may be four or more rows of scholars, the first 
of which begins with a leg exercise. After having taken 
the movement eight times the second row will begin, 
and so on. After the first row has finished its leg work 
it will take a drill for the neck, then for the arms and 
shoulders, going through a regular lesson. 



WHY DO WE TEACH? — WHO SHALL TEACH? 121 

The best plan is for the teacher to give the lesson as a 
whole, that the pupils may become familiar with the ex- 
ercises, then to start the first row in the manner named. 

Who should teach gymnastics? The answer is, 
Only that one who is competent. Again, Who is com- 
petent ? A good gymnast ? No. A person who is re- 
markably graceful? No. Neither strength, physique, 
nor great personal beauty makes one competent to teach 
gymnastics. It is the one who knows how to teach. 
The physique may be poor, both health and strength 
may be lacking, but there will be left the faculty of im- 
parting knowledge to others. There must be the power 
and example of enthusiasm, which makes a natural 
leader, No one can teach gymnastics who is not in some 
way a good representative of the work. It is necessary 
to understand the theory and practice of gymnastics 
and to have mastered bodily exercises. 



CHAPTER XI. 

OUTLINE LESSONS ON PARTS OF THE BODY. 

The outline lessons on the parts of the human body 
are intended to assist the teacher, both in speaking and 
teaching. The young men or women who are engaged 
as instructors in normal schools should not only be able 
to give instructions in gymnastics, but they should be 
able to prepare for their teachers short talks upon the 
reasons why exercises are given. There will not be, in 
this book, sufficient space to dwell at length upon the 
various portions of the body, but the teacher who is 
anxious to know more of this work can, by referring to 
Public School Syllabus,* prepare her talks, basing them 
upon the outlines found under the different headings. The 
author has dwelt at length upon the arms, the shoulders, 
and the thorax. The articles on the neck and legs can 
be filled out by the teachers themselves. Such a plan as 
this would be called the "skeleton " of a lecture. 

Outlines of Lessons on Parts of the Human Body. 

the head. 

Subject : Head and neck. 
Definition. 



*" Syllabus of Gymnastics," Anderson. 

122 



OUTLINE LESSONS ON PARTS OF THE BODY. 123 

Normal position. (See position of a soldier, page 183.) 
Defects : 

(1) Drooping. 

(2) Carried on one side. 

(3) Chin elevated or protruding. 

(4) Wry neck. 

Results of these defects on the shoulders and thorax. 
Treatment : 

Drooping head. Cause. Bending, turning, forc- 
ing, rolling. 
Head carried on one side. Cause. Bending, turn- 
ing. 
Elevated chin. Cause. Bending, forcing. Normal 

position. 
Head thrust forward. Cause. Forcing. Normal 

position. 
Wry neck. Surgical treatment. 
Results of treatment on 

(1) Position of the head. 

(2) Muscles of the neck. 

(3) Fat or thin necks. 

(4) Nerves of the neck. 

(5) Circulation and dizziness. 

(6) Headache. 

(7) Secondary effects on thorax and shoulders. 
JEsthetic. Nine realms, and meanings. 

The alphabet : bending, turning, rolling, and forcing. 
Important rules to members in treating defects : 

1st. Remove the cause. 

2d. Bring the part to its normal position. 

THE LEGS. 

Definition : Thigh, leg, knee, ankle, foot. 
Thigh: Divisions : Front, back, out and inside. 
Defects : Inner and back thigh not well developed. 
Cause : Lack of training. 
Results : 



124 METHODS OF TEACHING GYMNASTICS. 

Treatment : 

(1) Front : lower body ; jump ; run. 

(2) Biceps : flex leg ; raise heels in a run. 

(3) Inside : cross legs. 

(4) Outside: Take 1, 2, 3. 

Legs: Parts, front and back. Better developed than 
thigh. 

Defects : Small back. 
Cause : Lack of exercise. 
Results : General weakness. 
Treatment : 

(1) Back : Raise on toes. Running and jumping. 

(2) Front: Raise the toes. Fast walking. 
Knees: Definition. Defects. Treatment. 
Ankle: Definition. Defects. Cause. Treatment. 
The foot and toes. 

The hips: Jumpers, wrestlers, horseback riders. 

Compare the results of arm and leg work on circulation 
and respiration. Leg work produces better effects on 
brain congestion. 

Alphabet: step, charge, hop, run, swing, sway, ex- 
tend, flex, rotate. 

THE ARMS. 

Definition and division. Names of bones of arm (not 
wrist). 

(1) Deltoid. 

(2) Upper arm, front and back. 

(3) Forearm, front and back. 
Wrist, hand, fingers. 

Defects : Forearm better developed than the upper in 
proportion. 

Cause : Lack of exercise, over-development of certain 
parts. 

Treatment : 

(1) Front upper : flex forearm ; rotate forearm. 

(2) Back upper : thrust arm in any direction. 






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OUTLINE LESSONS ON PARTS OF THE BODY. 125 

(3) Front forearm : flex hand and fingers ; twist 

forearm. 

(4) Back forearm : extend hand ; extend fingers. 

(5) Wrist: by all-hand motions; rotation and 

four bending motions. 

(6) Hand: flex and extend fingers; Delsarte 

hand-shaking; separate fingers ; fold fingers. 
Use in cramp, paralysis, etc. 
Effect of treatment on 

(1) Circulation. 

(2) Cold hands. 

(3) Respiration. 

(4) Headache. 

(5) Nerves. 

Terms of alphabet : flex, rotate, thrust, twist, extend, 
separate, shaking. 

THE ARM. 

Free gymnastics do not, noticeably, increase the size 
of the muscles or bring great strengh. They add some- 
what to the symmetry of the arm, however. Pupils 
notice this, and consequently do not care much for such 
movements as flexing, extending, swinging, or circling 
the arm, or opening and closing the hand. Nevertheless, it 
does not follow that because these exercises do not pro- 
duce apparent results, we should eliminate them from 
our list. Strength is not the only result of physical 
training. This is illustrated in the development of the 
muscles of the arm. True, the hand, fingers, and fore- 
arm can be strengthened and developed, and in a very 
short time can be tired out, by free hand movements, 
but the biceps and the triceps are not exhausted so 
quickly. It is advisable, therefore, for the teacher to 
give special lessons for the development of the arms, 



126 METHODS OF TEACHING GYMNASTICS. 

using either the one-pound, wooden dumb bells a great 
number of times or the light iron dumb bells a few 
times. 

It neither requires a thorough knowledge of anatomy 
to develop the muscles of the arms nor calls for much 
time to learn the specific exercises. 

While we may urge our men to take certain prelimi- 
nary exercises before developing the arm, we cannot 
compel them to do it. They will do about as they please, 
for physical education is not, like many other depart- 
ments of education, compulsory. No harm will result 
if they begin the lesson with arm work. What is said 
about the development of the arm will apply with equal 
truth to the development of the muscles of the leg and 
thigh. 

Let us study this wonderful part of the human body, 
the arm. The teacher knows the anatomical names of 
these bones, but at the start had better not say to a child 
that this bone is the radius, or that such and such a 
bone is the semi-lunar or the scaphoid bone. Atten- 
tion is called to the divisions of the arm, as we shall 
treat them ; first, the upper arm, which is sub- 
divided into the front and the back. These are the parts 
of the upper arm to which we pay most attentien in our 
general classes. Then comes the forearm, which is also 
subdivided into the front and the back. Passing from 
that part we come to the wrist, then the hand proper, 
and finally the fingers. 

In developing the arm, pay more attention to the up- 
per than to the forearm, for this reason : the forearm is 
usually better developed in proportion, because the hand 



OUTLINE LESSONS ON PARTS OF THE BODY. 127 

and the fingers are used so frequently. If you wish to 
strengthen some part of the arm, the question arises, 
What exercise shall we give for developing the muscles? 
The teacher who understands the principles for develop- 
ing the parts of the body can apply them to the chest 
weights as well as to the special developing appliances. 
Let us take the upper arm. On the front part is the 
muscle called the biceps — the best-known muscle in the 
human body. Nearly every boy is familiar with it. He 
cares nothing for the origin and insertion of that muscle, 
but the teacher should. He knows, perhaps, that a cer- 
tain exercise will develop the biceps ; and if he does not 
know it he wishes that he did, and that he had a large 
muscle there. The two exercises for this part of the 
body are : first, flexing the forearm, second, with the 
arm partly flexed, rotating the forearm. Ask the boy 
to place his hand upon the biceps, then flex and rotate 
the forearm, that he may feel the muscle contract. It is 
an object lesson to him. He is also interested to know 
why .a screw turns to the right and not to the left— why 
we can use more force in turning the hand in one di- 
rection than in the other ; because the long, strong 
muscle on the upper arm helps to turn the right hand 
to the right. 

Pass to the back of the upper arm, to what is called 
the triceps. If the child knows so well what the bicep 
muscle is, it is not harder for him to learn what the tri- 
ceps is and where it is found. The chief exercise is the 
extension of the forearm. This muscle will push the 
hand away from the shoulder, or it will push the shoul- 
der away from the hand. If, holding in the hand a 



128 METHODS OF TEACHING GYMNASTICS. 

dumb bell, we push it up, out, or front, the triceps is 
one of the muscles that do the work. Other muscles 
are always used ; it is impossible to develop one particu- 
lar muscle in the human body, but one muscle can get 
the greater part of the work and thus be strengthened. 

Take next the deltoid, the " round-of-the-shoulder." 
Teachers of gymnastics should study this portion of the 
arm. The movement that develops this beautiful muscle 
is swinging the arm shoulder high, when its action 
stops. The arm is raised from the horizontal by the 
muscles which rotate the scapula, or the shoulder blade. 
In drawing the arm forward shoulder high, the anterior 
portion of the deltoid is called into action. 

The forearm is subdivided into the front and back. 
The movement in free gymnastics for developing the front 
forearm is the flexing of the hand or the closing of the 
fingers. The exercise for the back forearm and for the back 
of the hand is the extension of the hand and fingers. A 
third exercise for the muscles of the forearm is twisting the 
hand from right to left. Although the biceps acts, it is 
assisted by muscles in the forearm, termed "pronators" 
and "supinators." 

The wrist is strengthened and developed by the move- 
ments of the hand and the forearm. The extension and 
flexion, the abduction, adduction, and circumduction of 
the hand, are all good for the wrist. 

Arm exercises are helpful in certain forms of head- 
ache, especially those due to temporary cerebral conges- 
tion resulting from study or too close mental application. 
These movements draw the blood from the brain to the 
upper extremities. It has been said by some teachers 



OUTLINE LESSONS ON PARTS OF THE BODY. 129 

that they are able to remedy the pain in the head by the 
hand-shaking movements used in Delsarte gymnastics. 
We have found from experience that it is well to relieve 
cerebral pressure by arm or leg exercises. If it happens 
that the leg movements cannot be given in the school- 
room, use the arms. During continued mental effort the 
scholars should frequently be given exercises that will 
bring into action the muscles of the extremities. 

There are, in all of our classes, pupils who suffer from 
cold hands and cold feet. One cause of this is the poor 
circulation through the parts. It is, of course, necessary. 
to strengthen the action of the heart and increase the 
lung capacity, to overcome this defect. At the same 
time, the circulation must be quickened through the 
parts themselves. The exercises for the hands and arms 
will tend to overcome this unfavorable condition. 

People who have small arms, and who do not show the 
results of their gymnastic training in large measure- 
ments of this portion of the body, may find some conso- 
lation in the fact that the exercises develop the nerves. 
The musician has not, as a rule, a very large forearm. 
The muscles are well developed, elastic, and respond 
quickly to a stimulus sent to them. The nerves are in 
excellent condition, and it is here that we see the results 
of the training. It has been said before that muscles 
need not be large to be strong. If there is, back of a fair 
muscular condition, a great deal of nervous energy and 
will power, the muscles will do the work. 

The teachers of elocution in our colleges and secondary 
schools complain of the awkwardness of their pupils in 
making gestures, or in expressing emotions by the body. 



130 METHODS OF TEACHING GYMNASTICS. 

The small boy, speaking his piece from a platform in the 
school, considers that he has accomplished quite a feat if 
he swings his arm forward or to the right or left, in his 
effort to make a gesture. The instructor in gymnastics 
will be able to assist the teacher of elocution if she will 
drill the scholars in certain arm and shoulder move- 
ments when in the gymnasium. The swinging of the 
arm to the front, from this position out, then down, or 
swinging the arm up, out, and down, will very soon pro- 
duce greater freedom of movement at the shoulder joint. 
The angles can soon be turned into curves, so that, by 
constant practice, the child will be enabled, by use of the 
arms, shoulders, head, and body, to make gestures and 
to express his emotions when speaking. 

The child who begins the five-finger exercises on the 
piano will soon be able to play octaves, the chords, and 
the most difficult pieces ; but we do not find, as the child 
grows older and continues his practice, that there is a 
great increase in the size of the muscle. The quality, if 
not the quantity, is there. 

THE SHOULDERS. 

Definition and anatomy. Technical and common 
names. 
Capable of all motions. 
Defects : 

(1) Round. 

(2) Uneven. 

(3) Stooped. 

(4) Sloping. 

Results of these defects on the thorax and health. 
Theory of treatment. See rules under " The Head." 
Treatment by primary and secondary exercises. 
Round shoulders. Cause. Treatment. 



OUTLINE LESSONS ON PARTS OF THE BODY. 131 

Primary : 

(1) Force. 

(2) Elevate or raise. 

(3) Depress or lower. 

(4) Eoll. 
Secondary : 

(1) Setting up exercises. 

(2) Circling motion backward with arms. 

(3) Attitudes, good. Hips firm. Neck firm. Let- 

ter "Y." Attention. 

(4) Attitudes, bad. Arms folded. Incorrect sit- 

ting, standing, or lying positions. 
Stooped shoulders is a defect in the spine, and will be 
treated under the heading " Spine." 
Uneven shoulders. Cause. Treatment. 

To elevate, shrug or elevate the lower shoulder as 
a primary motion. 
Secondary : 

Arm swinging out or up ; arm thrusting up ; head 
bending to high side. 
To lower a shoulder, thrust arm down; force shoulder 
down. 
Bottle neck, or sloping, Cause. 
General rules for treatment : 

(1) Widen and deepen chest. 

(2) Build up neck muscles. 

(3) Elevate shoulders. 

Secondary effects of the shoulder work is to widen and 
deepen the thorax. 
Results on respiration. 
iEsthetic work. 

Value of shoulder work in elocution. 

Shoulder, the thermometer of the feelings. 

Combination of shoulder and head motions. 
Terms of the alphabet used : raise, lower, force, roll, 
circling, swinging, thrusting. 
It is difficult to determine whether drooping heads or 



132 METHODS OF TEACHING GYMNASTICS. 

round shoulders are the more common. We know there 
are too many of each. As a rule, the attention of 
parents is attracted to round shoulders sooner than to 
a drooping head. The teacher of gymnastics will have 
more requests from parents for exercises to remedy round 
shoulders than for those which affect the position of the 
head. Of the two, the defective shoulder is the more 
serious, because it affects directly the diameters of the 
thorax. 

The anatomy of the shoulder joint is simple. It is 
composed of three bones, the scapula, clavicle, and 
humerus ; or, in ordinary language, the shoulder blade, 
the collar bone, and upper arm. (It may be well to state 
here that it is not wise for a teacher to use technical 
terms too frequently before a class. It may awe the 
children for a short time, but with adults it generally 
produces a feeling of disgust ; it seems to older pupils as 
if the teacher were trying to "air" her knowledge — to 
show her superior wisdom by using phrases unintelligible 
to them.) 

The shoulder joint is capable of nearly every motion. 
It can be raised or lowered, thrust forward or back, 
rolled, adducted, or abducted. The peculiarity of the 
shoulder blade is that it is practically suspended. This 
being the case, it is plain that if one set of muscles is 
over-developed, it will draw the shoulder in their pulling 
direction. To illustrate : if the large pectoral muscles, 
which connect the shoulder with the breast-bone, are 
stronger than the muscles on the back, the shoulder will 
be drawn forward, producing the common defect of 
round shoulders. For similar reasons, one shoulder may 



OUTLINE LESSONS ON PARTS OF THE BODY. 133 

be higher than the other, or the spine itself may be 
drawn slightly forward in the region of the shoulders, 
producing what is called " stooped shoulders." 

Let us consider the first of these defects, round 
shoulders. This is due to over-development of the mus- 
cles of the front upper thorax, to posture, or to occupa- 
tion. The scholar who sits with arms resting on the 
desk, or lies in bed in such a position as to draw the 
shoulders forward, is producing this defect. The result 
is that the chest is flattened and the appearance of the 
shoulders changed. Any movements or postures that 
shorten the diameters of the thorax should be avoided, 
because the free action of the heart and lungs must 
never be impeded. 

In treating this defect, the general rule is to bring the 
shoulders to their proper position. This in itself is the 
most important of the primary exercises. All secondary 
exercises are taken with the arms, head, and trunk. In 
the case of round shoulders, the first primary exercise 
would be to draw the shoulders back, the second would 
be to arch the chest, the third to touch the inner borders 
of the scapula, the fourth to roll the shoulders back, 
emphasizing the backward but not the forward motion. 
Under the secondary exercises we would enumerate the 
11 setting up exercises," or any movement with the arms 
that will tend to bring the scapula to the normal 
position. 

Uneven shoulders are caused by the over-development 
of muscles on one side of the body, by posture, or by 
occupation. Right-handed people are stronger on the 
right side of the body than on the left. In nearly every 



134 METHODS OF TEACHING GYMNASTICS. 

case examined the left shoulder is higher than the right. 
Pupils who carry books on the right arm, or who stand 
with one hip higher than the other, are apt to show this 
defect. 

The general plan of treatment is simple ; if the shoulder 
is too low, raise it, if too high, lower it. These are pri- 
mary exercises. Thrusting the flexed arm up and swing- 
ing the arm up are secondary exercises. A good combi- 
nation would be to flex both arms, and from this position 
thrust one hand up and the other down. 

In the case of a bottle-necked pupil, the shoulder treat- 
ment is of less importance than the treatment of the 
thorax. 

Stooped shoulders will be considered under the heading 
of the spine, as this defect is due to a curve in the verte- 
bral column. It is much more difficult to cure for this 
reason. 

The effect of these exercises upon the thorax, as has 
been stated, is to widen and deepen it. The circulation 
and respiration are therefore benefited. Widening and 
deepening the thorax will of course increase the size of 
the abdominal cavity, thus shoulder exercises aid, in- 
directly, digestion. 

The above brief description of the shoulders will give 
the teacher some idea of the plan used by the author in 
filling out a skeleton lecture. 

THE THORAX AND ITS CONTENTS. 

Thorax— Definition. Anatomy. Contents. 
What constitutes a normal thorax ? 
Defective thorax : Uneven, short diameters. 
Cause : Dress, position, pressure, lack of exercise. 



OUTLINE LESSONS ON PARTS OF THE BODY. 135 

Results of defects on 

Lungs, heart, waist. 
Treatment : 

(1) By external and internal development. 

(2) Of heart. 

(3) Of lungs. 

The external treatment is to widen and deepen. 
To widen : Primary : 

"Sternum expression." 
Force back abdomen. 
Secondary : 
Shrug shoulders. 
Swing arm sidewise. 
Bend body to right and left. 
Bend body to right and left, neck 

firm. 
Bend body, arms (1 or 2) up. 
Letter "Y." 
To deepen : Primaiw : 

''Sternum expression." 
Secondary : 
Bend back head. 
Bend body back and to oblique. 
Swing arms front and up. 
Letter " Y " and back bend. 
Hips firm and forward bend. 
Terras of alphabet : force, shrug, swing, bend. 

THORAX — BREATHING. 

The lungs. 
Definition. 

Importance of exercise. 
Exercise for lungs : 

Why do we breathe ? 

How do we breathe ? 
Defects : 

Lungs partly filled. 



136 METHODS OF TEACHING GYMNASTICS. 

Kinds : 

Diaphragmatic. 

Intercostal. 

Abdominal. 

Chest. 
What muscles are used in breathing ? 
Two parts of breathing : inhaling and exhaling. 
Normal breathing. See a child. 

Abnormal breathing. When it begins. Corset. Dress* 
Breathing of civilized men and women and of Indian 
women. See Kirke's " Physiology." 
Treatment : inhaling is primary. 
Secondary : 

(1) Combine with head bending. 

(2) Arm motions to side and front. 

(3) Inhale and arm forcing. Percussing. 

(4) Shrug and force shoulders. 

(5) Trunk bending. 

(6) Exercises for one side. 
Which deepen or widen ? 
Leg vs. arm work. 

Describe the action of the lungs when one is asleep,, 
sitting, standing, running. 

Breathing in Ling laws. Why begin slowly. Simple 
breathing for children. Whistle, sing, hiss. Breath- 
lessness vs. fatigue. Effects of breathing on circulation. 
Reflex action in speaking, fear, anger. School venti- 
lation. 

Terms of alphabet : breathing, percussing, shrugging, 
bending, forcing. 

Any good work on anatomy will assist the teacher in 
studying the formation of the thorax, while the various 
works on physiology will tell of the action of the 
muscles and the functions of the organs in this portion 
of the body. It is not our intention to describe the 
anatomy and physiology of the parts, but to give the 



OUTLINE LESSONS ON PARTS OF THE BODY. 137 

teacher a few suggestions for the development of this 
very important portion of the body. 

By the thorax, we refer to that bony, cartilaginous 
cage which is bounded in front by the sternum and the 
ribs, on the sides by the ribs, at the back by the spinal 
column and the ribs, and at its base by the diaphragm. 
The portions of the body found in the thorax are .the 
heart and lungs, with their appendages. These organs 
are directly affected by physical training, and suffer 
from a lack of care. 

It is not easy to answer the question, "What consti- 
tutes a normal thorax?" There are certain measure- 
ments that will be of service, if we depended upon figures. 
There is not so much data for children. We should ex- 
pect to find a healthy thorax in a healthy child. The 
diameters from front to rear, and from right to left, are 
not shortened too much. It may be that the upper por- 
tion of this cage is too small, in which case we should 
endeavor to widen and deepen that part. We are not 
liable to make a mistake in widening and deepening the 
thorax to too great an extent. 

There are certain gymnastic movements that will de- 
velop the chest, but before any defect can be remedied 
we must, if possible, ascertain its cause and remove it. 
Any other course would be as absurd as for a person to 
hold in the hand a hot coal and try to remedy the effects 
without removing the heat. If the defective thorax is 
caused by improper dress, change it. If it is the result of 
a bad standing position, correct the position. If it is due 
to pressure — by this we mean the leaning against a desk, 
or the occupation of the person, carrying weights, etc. — 



138 METHODS OF TEACHING GYMNASTICS. 

remove the pressure. If the diameters are shortened be- 
cause of weakened muscles, and the muscles are weakened 
through lack of exercise, give the child gymnastics. 
The results of the defects in the thorax are shown in 
the action of the lungs, heart, and the abdominal organs. 
If the heart has not ample space, it cannot perform its 
functions. If the lungs are crowded, they cannot aerate 
the blood. If the lower diameters of the thorax are 
small the waist will be the same, hence there is not room 
for the action of the organs of the abdomen that is 
required of them to perform their special functions. 

The development of the thorax may be secured in 
three ways : first, by external and internal muscular de- 
velopment ; second, by exercises which increase the size 
of the heart ; and, third, by the development of the 
lungs. Under the first heading, we may subdivide the 
external treatment into two kinds of movements — pri- 
mary and secondary, the object of these movements be- 
ing to widen and deepen the chest. The chest and 
thorax in this case are synonymous, although (in the 
eyes of physical directors) the chest muscles and the 
muscles of the thorax are not identical. The primary 
motion for widening the chest is that in which the thorax 
itself is used to produce the result. Mr. Roberts, the 
energetic instructor in gymnastics in the Boston Y. M. 
C. A., has termed this movement " sternum expression. 77 
It consists in the arching of the chest — the elevation of 
the ribs. It is performed by forcing back the anterior 
walls of the abdomen and depressing somewhat the 
shoulders. The question may then be properly asked, 
Is this a primary exercise for the thorax, if other parts 



OUTLINE LESSONS ON PARTS OF THE BODY. 139 

are used to produce the result? It is the nearest ap- 
proach to a primary motion we can call to mind. It 
certainly has great value. If the mouth and nose are 
closed the pupil can, by pure muscular movement, in- 
crease the girth measurements one or two inches. 

The secondary exercises for widening the thorax are 
these : shrug or elevate the shoulders as high as possible ; 
swing the arms sideways over the head, with neck firm 
or arms up, bend the body to the right and left, or, by 
placing one hand on the hip and curving the other hand 
over the head, bending the body to one side, we elevate 
the opposite portion of the thorax. The letter Y posi- 
tion (Fig. 6) will also widen the chest. 

To deepen the thorax there is but one primary motion, 
which has been described under the term "sternum ex- 
pression." The secondary movements are : the bending 
backward of the head, the bending of the body back- 
ward and obliquely backward, the swinging of the arms 
forward and upward, the letter Y position and body 
bending backward, the hips firm, chest arched, and 
body bending forward. It is not the object of this chap- 
ter to go into a complete list of movements or to arrange 
a progressive series of exercises. It is well, however, for 
the teacher to understand the principles upon which the 
movements are based. Baron Posse's "Swedish Gym- 
nastics" (Kinesiology) is strongly indorsed. 

The instructor who wishes, can ascertain the results 
of arm movements on the diameters of the thorax by 
placing the calipers against the walls of the chest, 
then swinging the arms sideways and upward. By so 
doing she will find that the diameter is increased very 



140 METHODS OF TEACHING GYMNASTICS. 

perceptibly. This is equally true if the calipers are 
placed against the spine and the anterior portion of the 
thorax, and the arms raised forward. 

There has been some discussion lately on the compara- 
tive value of certain exercises for widening and deepen- 
ing the thorax. It seems that many of our gymnastic 
teachers have accepted without question the statement 
that the quarter circle, intercostal machine, and ab- 
dominal attachment to the chest weight are the in- 
struments, par excellence, for widening and deepening 
the chest. 

The student anxious to deepen his chest has been ad- 
vised to lie over the arc of the quarter circle and go 
through prescribed movements, or if this was not avail- 
able to use the intercostal machine. In case the second 
device was also wanting, the instructor recommended 
the plan shown in the following illustration ; a simple 
combination of the abdominal attachment of the chest 
weight and a mat. 




Almost ten years ago a firm interested in the manu- 
facture of gymnastic apparatus distributed an illustrated 
pamphlet on the chest w T eight ; since then nearly every 
firm engaged in making appliances for the gymnasium 
has used identical cuts, with the same descriptive word- 




Fig. 7.— The Chest Machine. (Page 143. 



OUTLINE LESSONS ON PARTS OF THE BODY. 141 

s 

ing, while usage and habit have made the diagrams seem 
correct. 

It will be beneficial to the cause of physical training 
if more time can be given to thoughtful discussion of 
the apparatus found in our modern gymnasia. Some 
teachers take too much for granted, they are slow in 
taking the initiative in investigating statements ; others 
blindly pin their faith to manuals issued by publishers. 

The raising of the arms sideways and upwards widens 
the chest, while swinging them forward and upward 
deepens it. This statement is easily verified by the ap- 
plication of the slide or calipers. 

Arm-raising is done by muscles above the shoulders 
and on the upper back, so that the result of these move- 
ments, i. e., the lengthening of the diameters of the 
thorax, is accomplished by the muscles that elevate the 
shoulders, ribs, and arms. 

To produce a like effect we have been in the habit of 
placing the student on the quarter circle, requiring him 
to develop the muscles which pull down or depress the 
shoulders, ribs, and arms. 

Now the question arises, Why do we at one moment 
give arm-raising with or without resistance to expand 
the chest and the next direct the pupil to pull the arms 
down to reach the same result ? It has been said that 
the pectorals in this exercise will elevate the sternum ; 
this would be so if the shoulders were firmly fixed, but 
of the two parts of the body, the shoulders move more 
readily and are consequently drawn forward and down. 
A broad, deep chest does not usually accompany round, 
sloping shoulders. 



142 METHODS OF TEACHING GYMNASTICS. 

In the treatment of "the bony cartilaginous cage," 
we place too little value upon the development of the 
middle back, and the position of the spine. It is of great 
importance that the vertebrae be kept as nearly as 
possible within the line of their customary curves. 

Correct posture is soon to play a more important part 
in our gymnastic training. 

Why is it that if we wish to produce a normal back 
we place the pupil in a very abnormal position and keep 
him there, as on the quarter circle ? It is hardly rational 
to expect to produce symmetry by assuming and hold- 
ing positions that approach deformity. (Exceptions are 
made when treating scoliosis, etc.) 

The quarter circle is a clever device for strengthening 
the front and sides of the waist and the abdomen ; it is 
valuable for certain forms of indigestion, and may be of 
use in reducing adipose, but as a chest deepener it is 
over-rated. It is true that by placing a person over the 
curved board, the chest is arched, and if the patient will 
grasp the handles and allow the hands to go slowly back 
and up, there is a perceptible increase in the girth meas- 
urement ; but is this increase the result of the contrac- 
tion of the muscles themselves, or is it the effect of the 
weight? If the latter, then the chest is expanded by 
a weight and not by muscular contraction, and if this is 
true, would not the muscles which prevent expansion of 
the chest be strengthened in their effort to overcome the 
resistance made by the weight? 

To permanently expand the thorax we must develop 
the muscles which produce this result. 

The quarter circle develops the recti, external and 



OUTLINE LESSONS ON PARTS OF THE BODY. 143 

internal oblique abdominal and transversalis muscles. 

Muscles tend to draw their points of origin and in- 
sertion toward each other even when at rest. How, 
then, can these strong bands which are drawing the an- 
terior portion of the thorax and the pelvic attachment 
nearer together assist in deepening the chest? 

The strong latissimi also draw down. By which 
method, then, are we to elevate the chest ? By continu- 
ally working downward or upward ? 

The same may be asked in reference to the intercostal 
and abdominal attachment of the chest weight. 

The belief that a machine built upon the reverse or- 
der would be productive of better results led me to fashion 
an inclined board with wheels at the base, so planned 
that the chest would be properly arched and kept so dur- 
ing the exercise. This can be done by a device that will 
support the middle upper back and prevent any sinking 
or sagging of the spine. 

The illustration (Fig. 7) gives one an idea of the new 
chest machine. The roller is adjustable, adapting the 
machine to persons of different heights. Some changes 
will be made in the details. The wheels near the weights 
are not needed, and instead of a roller, will be used an 
oblong back rest or curved board. 

The following deductions have also led me to depart 
from the beaten path : 

1. The position on the old quarter circle is not a good 
one. 

2. The machine is essentially for the waist and abdo- 
men and not the chest, while the muscles that should 
be developed are not drawn enough into action. 



144 METHODS OF TEACHING GYMNASTICS. 

3. The force is from above down, consequently the 
muscles developed tend to cramp the thorax by pulling 
it lower. 

By the new device : 

1. The pupil is placed in a posture that approximates 
a normal position of the body, the surface of the board 
being molded to the spinal curves and tilted back far 
enough to localize the work. On this board one cannot 
exaggerate the attitude, but is compelled to arch the 
chest to nearer the right degree. 

2. The muscles which tend to compress the thorax 
are not brought into action as on the old machine, 
while those instrumental in widening the chest are de- 
veloped. 

3. In the old quarter circle the weights deepen the 
chest ; here the muscles do the work, and are made 
stronger by overcoming resistance from below. 

In applying the principle to the intercostal machine, 
I have followed the same plan, in that the wheels are 
placed on the floor, consequently the pulling is from be- 
low upward, while with the abdominal mat the pupil 
lies at length with his feet, not his head, to the ma- 
chine. 

I do not say that the new chest machine is the best 
contrivance in the gymnasium for expanding the thorax, 
for I am of the opinion that the inverted " Intercostal " 
is preferable, but I think that of the two machines for 
developing the chest, the quarter circle and new chest 
machine, the latter is better. 

The research work done by the pupils of the Ander- 
son School of Gymnastics in reference to this subject led 



OUTLINE LESSONS ON PARTS OF THE BODY. 145 

me to believe that the principle of continually pulling 
doivn to increase the thoracic diameter is wrong. 

BREATHING. 

A subject that should be discussed under the head- 
ing Thorax. The importance attached to the develop- 
ment of the lungs cannot be questioned. The teacher 
should know what exercises are used, how they affect 
the lungs ; she should understand why we breathe, 
and how we breathe. If the opportunity presents itself, 
it would be to the advantage of the teacher to make 
some device that will show the scholars the method of 
breathing. Dr. Seaver, of the Yale Gymnasium, has 
arranged a device with bellows, that answers this pur- 
pose admirably. Pupils do not understand that the 
lungs are rilled by having a vacuum produced, into which 
the air rushes. 

The defects in the lungs are these : the upper portions 
of the apices are not, as a rule, rilled at each inhalation. 
People who live a sedentary life do not call into action 
the necessary portions of the lung, which, if not used, 
may become weakened and diseased. Scholars who will 
not take the breathing exercises of their own accord 
should be made to breathe deeply and rapidly through 
the exercises set aside for this purpose, viz.: running, 
jumping, or quick leg work of any kind. 

It is not wise for the teacher to discuss the different 
forms of breathing with small children. It is of little 
moment to a child whether its breathing is diaphrag- 
matic, intercostal, abdominal, or thoracic — or what mus- 
cles are used. The teacher should, at every lesson, give 



146 METHODS OF TEACHING GYMNASTICS. 

some drill that will compel the child to breathe deeply 
and rapidly. 

In reply to the question, What muscles are used in 
breathing, we can say that nearly every muscle of the 
body is used in forced inspiration. In the ordinary 
breathing, the muscles surrounding the thorax play an 
important part. But here, as before, the teacher can 
learn by referring to the works on anatomy and physi- 
ology. The difference in length of inhaling and exhaling 
is discussed in the works on the physiology of exercise. 
The chapter on breathlessness in La Grange's "Physi- 
ology of Exercise" is very interesting. The teacher 
who wishes to ascertain the difference between normal 
and abnormal breathing should study the healthy child. 
Abnormal breathing begins when the action of the 
thorax is interfered with by dress, posture, profession, or 
disease. The breathing of men and women should 
be identical. The experiments made by Dr. Mays of 
Philadelphia, Dr. Robert L. Dickinson of Brooklyn, 
and Dr. Kellogg of Battle Creek will give the reader 
further information on this subject. Instructors in 
gymnastics, whether physicians or laymen, should read 
articles on the lungs, their diseases and treatment. 

To increase the capacity of the lungs, the primary 
work would be inhaling and exhaling. The secondary 
would be a combination of inhaling with the head bend- 
ing movements backward, the arm swinging sideways 
and upward, or artificial respiration, which is performed 
after this fashion : the arms are raised forward and up- 
ward, during which time the pupil inhales ; they are 
then forced backward and downward, when exhalation 



OUTLINE LESSONS ON PARTS OF THE BODY. 147 

takes place. The teacher should notice the position of 
the head and the hips during these movements. Shrug- 
ging or elevating the shoulders combined with breathing 
is a good exercise. Inhaling, holding the breath for a 
few seconds, and gently forcing the arms (which are half 
flexed) backward, is also a good drill. 

The general rules for increasing the capacity of the 
lungs would be these : give all running, jumping, hop- 
ping, and leaping movements; give the class drills in 
counting aloud, singing, and whistling. Make the work 
simple, but interesting, when teaching children. They 
love to take these movements. 

THE SPINE. 

There has been a constant call for exercises that will 
remedy or cure certain defects of the spine. We cannot 
lay down a series of rules and say that they will apply 
to all cases. Physicians w r ho have had experience in 
handling the spine are careful about preparing set rules 
or exercises for abnormal curves. The common defect in 
the spine termed kyphosis, or, in plain words, stooping 
shoulders, will be helped by the following exercises. 

KYPHOSIS. — A SERIES OF EXERCISES FOR KYPHOSIS, 
OR STOOPING SHOULDERS. 

Assume the best possible standing position, with head 
erect, chest arched, hips back. 

(1) Neck work. Clasp the hands back of the head, 
then pulling with the hands, bend head backward, eight 
to sixteen times. 

(2) Shoulder work. Swing the arms forward and up- 
ward, then force them back and down six to eight times. 



148 METHODS OF TEACHING GYMNASTICS. 

(3) Back work. With the arms up bend the body well 
forward, keeping the arms at the side of the head, eight 
times. 

(4) Same as No. 3, but in the kneeling position. Also 
bend the body backward. 

(5) Neck ivork. Lie, face downward, on the floor or 
mat, resting forehead on the folded arms. Raise head as 
high as possible eight to sixteen times. 

(6) Upper spine. With the neck firm, position lying 
face down, some one holding the feet, raise the shoulders 
as high as possible one to ten times. 

(7) "Swimming motion." 

In case the exercises are too severe take each one only 
a few times and omit Nos. 6 and 7. 

These exercises are to be taken the number of times 
indicated by the figures. 

The swimming motion is taken in this way : lie face 
down, as in No. 5, but go through regular swimming 
motions with the arms. The hands are not to touch the 
floor at any time. These exercises are also good for 
drooping head. 

Projecting hips may be helped if the teacher will give 
to the scholars exercises for developing the muscles on 
the front and sides of the waist, the anterior portion of 
the pelvis, and the upper front thighs. If any special 
rule were to be given for the treatment of a spinal defect, 
it would be to place the patient in the best possible posi- 
tion, compelling him to hold it until slightly fatigued, 
then permitting rest, and later on repeating the process. 
If defects are caused by incorrect posture, they can be 
helped by assuming and holding correct positions. If a 






B 



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i 



OUTLINE LESSONS ON PARTS OF THE BODY, 149 

bad position produces a defect, a good position will tend 
to cure it. It would be far better for the instructor in 
gymnastics who has not a medical education to refer 
a case Of spinal trouble or defect to some physician. 

COMMON PHYSICAL DEFECTS. 

The common physical defects which may be helped by 
free gymnastics : 
Head. 

Drops forward. 

Carried a little to one side. 

Chin raised too high, or protruding. 
Shoulders. 

Round, stooping, sloping, and uneven. 
Thorax. 

One side better developed or larger than the other. 

The diameters too short. 
Upper back. 

Right shoulder blade too prominent in right- 
handed people. 
Spine. 

Side or lateral curves. Rotation. 

Bends too far forward from between the shoulders. 
Waist. 

Too narrow. 

Abdominal muscles weak. 
Hips. 

Thrown too far forward. 
Arms. 

Forearm better developed than the upper arm. 
Leg. 

Better developed than thigh. 
Thigh. 

Inside and back poorly developed. 
Planes of the Body. The arms may be held shoulder 
high to the side, front, or obliquely front ; hip high to 



150 METHODS OF TEACHING GYMNASTICS. 

side ; head high to side. To distinguish the position of 
straight arms, these planes of the body are used : head, 
shoulders, chest, and hips. 

Directions. All exercises are given in one or more of 
the following directions : down, out, up, or front. Or 
they may be given to the front and back, right and left, 
and in the oblique directions front and back, both to 
right and left. 



CHAPTER XII. 

HOW TO TEACH WALKING. 

Before walking can be taught, there must be a 
thorough comprehension of what is meant by good walk- 
ing. No man or woman can teach what he or she does 
not know, and if what constitutes good walking is not 
understood, the instructor cannot teach. 

A preliminary talk with children invariably has an 
excellent effect, when the subject of walking is to be 
brought to their attention. Ask them to notice how a 
minister walks up the church aisle and into his pulpit. 
They will readily see your point when you state that 
the deliberate, measured step he takes detracts not at all, 
but is associated with the dignity of his office. They 
will agree with you when you say that the joyousness of 
a laughing child finds outward expression in a light, 
quick walk ; that imbecility is evinced by an undecided 
walk, wavering and weak. Old age totters and requires 
support. An honest, courageous, active young man or 
woman may walk well, and a person would be far 
more likely to trust one with such a walk than the 
individual who entered his presence with a shuffling, 
shambling gait. Many a child has not, before this, 
really comprehended that carriage and the walk are 
closely allied with the character. Pride in self is aroused, 

151 



152 METHODS OF TEACHING GYMNASTICS. 

the incentive to be a noble-looking and noble-acting boy 
or girl comes forth, and before the " practical teaching" 
is begun the child wants to walk correctly, and will, if 
you teach it rightly. 

Ask your pupils to watch an ideal walker. Tell them 
that such a person is a good walker, being easy and 
graceful, the opposite of awkward and clumsy, in his 
movements. Tell them to observe that Mr. B. carries 
his body properly, this including the position of the 
head, the chest, and the hips. If the child observes that 
the head droops forward, that the chest is flat, or the 
hips are too far advanced, he knows that these defects 
must be remedied before good walking can be acquired. 
The public school-teacher, anxious to train her pupils in 
this art, should watch them carefully, taking into con- 
sideration the position of the head, the action of the 
shoulders, hips, legs, and arms. The carriage of the 
body as a whole should be observed. 

In teaching the exercises it will not only be necessary 
to note carefully the defects which exist, but the various 
movements of the different parts of the body must be 
carefully analyzed, as a person takes a few steps. Again, 
the members of the body must be trained as parts, and 
then we must apply the exercises to the body as a whole. 
A child may use his arms well, if he uses only the arms. 
He may have free leg movements, his head may be erect, 
the chest may be beautifully arched ; but it requires 
practice to properly handle all of these different parts at 
once, as in walking. It is not possible to make a perfect 
whole from imperfect parts. Nor is it possible to make a 
perfect whole of perfect parts, unless they are rightly 



HOW TO TEACH WALKING. 153 

placed together. Therefore, not only should, the members 
of the body which are used be educated, but the body as 
a whole should be brought under discipline. 

The right carriage of the head and chest adds dignity 
to the walk. Call to the pupil's attention the necessity 
of holding the head erect. It will become evident to the 
observing teacher that some pupils swing the head too 
much in walking. Others thrust the head forward, or 
give to the shoulders a swinging or shrugging move- 
ment. The arms of some scholars are held stiffly at the 
side, or are not allowed to swing at all. There may be a 
sinking motion to the hip, as the pupil takes a step. 
The foot may be placed heavily upon the floor. The 
start may be made from the flat foot and not from the 
ball of the foot, or the walking itself may be unsteady 
and in irregular lines. Now, knowing these defects, the 
next thing is to analyze two or three steps, that we may 
secure exercises to assist in teaching pupils how to walk. 

The pupil starts from the position of attention (Fig. 
8), the weight equally distributed upon both feet. From 
this attitude it is impossible to take a step without doing 
two things : first, the body must sway to the right, that 
the left foot may be free; and, second, the body must 
fall forward, that the pupil may gain ground or advance. 
Since this is true, we know that at first there are two 
movements which can be given as exercises : 

SWAYING EXERCISES. 

1. With common base, sway the body from the right 
to the left. Allow four counts to the right and four to 
the left. (The effect of this exercise, when taken by a 



154 METHODS OF TEACHING GYMNASTICS. 

large class, is rather pleasing, as it brings a suggestion 
of the wheat in the field, as it is swayed gently to and 
fro by the wind.) 

Sway the body forward and backward, using the com- 
mon base. (This will be a more difficult exercise, as the 
arc of the circle made by the head is shorter than from 
right to left. In either of these exercises do not bend 
the body, but let it sway as a whole.) To modify the 
movements, place the right foot its length obliquely for- 
ward to the right and sway to the forward foot, raising 
slightly the back heel. Sway back to the left foot, leav- 
ing the right foot on the floor. The motion should be 
even and regular. Also sway the body to the right and 
left with a wide base, the feet eight to ten inches apart. 
(The pupil who makes quick and jerky motions in these 
exercises will be apt to do the same in walking.) 

After swaying, the next noticeable movement is bend- 
ing the left knee, preparatory to raising the left foot 
from the floor. 

KNEE BENDING EXERCISES. 

2. Without removing the toes from the floor, slightly 
bend the right knee from eight to sixteen times, and 
then the left. Notice whether the pupil allows the right 
hip to sink when taking the knee bendings. This, if it 
occurs, is a defect. The child who lowers the hip while 
practicing the knee bending exercises may do the same 
in walking. (See Fig. 9.) 

FOOT RAISING EXERCISES. 

3. Without moving other parts of the body, half flex 
the right thigh sixteen times. Take the same exercise 



HOW TO TEACH WALKING. 155 

with the left. By this means the foot is raised from the 
floor. 

After the foot has been raised from the floor by flexing 
the thigh, it is necessary, to gain ground, to swing the 
leg forward. As a means to this end give the leg swing- 
ing exercises. (Note the difference between the leg and 
the thigh.) The teacher will observe that this is a bal- 
ancing motion. 

LEG SWINGING EXERCISES. 

4. With the thigh slightly flexed, swing the leg for- 
ward and backward eight or sixteen times, keeping the 
thigh in place. 

After the leg swings forward, and the foot is made 
ready to be placed on the floor, give the extending and 
flexing of the foot. 

FOOT EXTENSION AND FLEXION EXERCISE. 

5. Extend and flex the right foot eight or sixteen 
times. The left. 

The teacher will notice now, that the weight of the 
body is upon the right leg, the foot of the left is ready 
to be placed upon the floor, and the next exercise which 
will naturally follow is changing the weight of the 
body from the right to the left foot. 

CHANGING WEIGHT EXERCISE. 

6. Let the body fall forward until its weight rests upon 
the left foot. Raise the heel of the right foot, the right 
toe touching the floor. Sway back again to the right 
foot, raising the left foot from the floor. Repeat this 
movement, going forward and back eight or sixteen 
times. (The feet do not come together in the exercise.) 



156 METHODS OF TEACHING GYMNASTICS. 

The weight is now upon the left leg. The next exer- 
cise will be a pendulum movement. Give as an exercise 
thigh swinging forward and backward. 

THIGH SWINGING EXERCISE. 

7. Swing the thigh forward or backward eight or six- 
teen times with a pendulum motion. 

A final exercise will require the movement of the body- 
as a whole. 

EXERCISE. 

8. With the left foot take one step forward, planting 
the right foot by it, touching heels. Step back with 
right foot, bring the left back alongside it. Repeat to 
counts of eight or sixteen. 

These exercises are termed primary, because they are 
actual parts of the step. To walk properly, the pupil 
should be able to balance the body well. As a secondary 
exercise, give balancing movements. Drill the pupil also 
in the charging, stepping, and wide base swaying move- 
ments. Running in place, and hopping and jumping 
movements are all valuable. If these are correctly done, 
the pupil will be taught to depend more upon the action 
of the ball of the foot than he does. 

The foregoing is a description of exercises for the legs. 
A person must pay attention to the position of other 
parts of the body. Exercises should be given for widen- 
ing and deepening the chest, for developing the muscles 
of the neck, that the head may be carried properly, for 
removing the tension from the arm muscles if it is too j 
great, and for the strengthening of the waist and ab- 
domen. 



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HOW TO TEACH WALKING. 157 

A few general rules will be of some value, if they are 
enforced. The ball of the foot does not touch the floor 
first. The best walkers plant almost a flat foot, the heel 
striking the ground a little in advance of the rest of the 
foot. Bean bags and light weights may be carried on the 
head. Do not overtrain one part of the body. 

All exercises can be taken to waltz time ; if music is 
not used the motions can be taken any odd or even num- 
ber of times. 



CHAPTER XIII. 



THE ALPHABET. 



Space will be given to a discussion of some of the 
letters of the alphabet. We use only twenty in our 
work, although there are other movements that can be 
classed under this head, but we find from experience that 
this number is sufficient for the present. Here we shall 
call attention to only a few of them. 

Let us take up the first one, the stepping motion.* 
The stepping motion, which is a leg exercise, consists in 
swinging the leg forward until the foot has gone its own 
length, then touching the tip of the foot to the floor with- 
out lowering the heel. The foot is then returned and 
placed alongside the other. (See Fig. 10.) In this exer- 
cise the body is kept in place by balancing it on the 
left foot. The teacher should notice that the shoulders 
and thorax do not move. In short, the scholar should 
be kept in the position of attention, except that the right 
foot and leg are advanced, the weight being on the left. 

The stepping motion is taken in these directions : to 

the front, obliquely forward, to the right, obliquely back, 

and back, the knee not being bent ; but when taken 

across in front, to the left, or across back, the knee is 

bent. The tip of the toe touches the floor, and the angle 

*The reader is referred to the work entitled " Light Gymnastics," 
oy the author, /Or a short description of each of these terms. 

158 



THE ALPHABET. 159 

kept by the feet is, in nearly all cases, sixty degrees. 
This is an important point to be remembered, otherwise 
the child is apt to " toe in," when stepping across. 

Do not give more than the stepping exercise at one 
lesson, and thoroughly drill the scholars upon the move- 
ment. It will be found later, when teaching series of 
movements, that the stepping exercise forms an im- 
portant part of many drills. Stepping and foot placing 
are not identical. 

The charging motion is considered one of the most 
difficult movements in the alphabet. In the stepping 
motion the foot is carried forward its own length ; in the 
charging motion twice its own length. Some instructors 
place the foot three lengths forward ; we find two lengths 
sufficient. The body is carried forward, the trunk being 
in a perpendicular position, the heels and toes of both 
feet are on the floor, the right knee is bent until it con- 
ceals the foot. The point of the body farthest forward 
is the right knee, next the toes of the right foot, next 
the chest. The hands may be placed on the hip, the 
shoulders are turned a little to the right. The eyes 
are to the front, or they may be turned in the oblique 
direction and the head turned in the same way, if the 
teacher wishes. (See Fig. 11.) 

The difficult parts of the charging motion are these : 
the chest must be in advance of the hips, the right knee 
is bent, the left leg is perfectly straight, and the lines 
which run from the right knee to the heel and from the 
left hip to the heel would be parallel in this motion. 
This last rule cannot be applied when the right foot is 
charged obliquely forward or backward to the left. 



160 METHODS OF TEACHING GYMNASTICS. 

A charging motion is taken in seven directions, viz. : 
to the front and to the rear, obliquely forward and back- 
ward to the right and left, and to the right. We do not 
give the charging motion with the right foot to the left. 

When teaching the stepping or charging motion notice 
that the first movement made by the body is a slight 
swaying motion to the left if the right foot is advanced. 

In teaching the charging motion request the pupils to 
take a foot placing two foot lengths in a given direction, 
as seen in the illustration (Fig. 12), then bend the front 
knee, until the rule will apply. 

In exercises of this character, when the eyes and 
shoulders are to the front, the feet preserve the angle of 
sixty degrees, when charging to the right or left and 
turning the shoulders in the same direction the foot 
points to the right or left. In this case the angle is 
greater than sixty degrees. 

How to give the commands : For a stepping exercise 
say, "Stepping motion (or charging motion), right foot 
to the right, eight times, waltz time, begin." Generally 
state first what the exercise is to be and always leave the 
command of execution to the last. 

The reverse charge. An exercise which is in many 
respects the reverse of the charging motion. It will be 
seen in the illustration. (See Fig. 13.) 

The body is not carried forward but is slightly lowered, 
the right leg or foot is advanced twice its length, the left 
knee is bent, both feet are on the floor. 

The defects to be remedied are these : the weight is 
carried too far forward, the feet do not rest on the floor 
according to the rule, the body may be turned too much 



THE ALPHABET, 161 

to one side. The motion is made in these directions : 
front, obliquely front, to the right, obliquely back, and 
back. The reverse charge is easier than the regular 
charging motion. The command is, " Reverse charge, 
the right foot to the front, begin. 11 State the direction 
and number of times. 

Placing. A term applied to the feet and arms or the 
body as a whole. The foot is placed to the right or the 
front according to the rules found in the various manuals 
of Swedish gymnastics. The distance is either one or 
two foot lengths, the weight is equally divided after 
placing the foot. (See Fig. 14.) The command is, "Foot 
placing, right foot to the right (or left), one length (or 
two), place. 11 The term is applied to the arms or hands 
when they are to be placed on the hips, chest, or 
shoulders, or upon the shoulders of another. 

Swaying motions. These are made with a common or 
wide base, by changing the weight from one foot to the 
other with or without knee bending. The command is, 
" Swaying motion, right foot charge (or place) to the 
right, begin. 11 

Swinging motions are made with the arms and legs, 
and consist in swinging them to some given height in a 
given direction. The command is, " Swing the arm out 
(or front or up), begin. 11 

Circling motions are different from the swinging 
motions. The term is applied to movements made with 
Indian clubs or to the similar exercises made with bells. 
Circles are made, not pendulum movements. The com- 
mand is, "Circle the right club to the left (or right), 
begin "; or, " Shoulder circle to the right, begin. 11 



162 METHODS OF TEACHING GYMNASTICS. 

Thrusting and extending are the same. 

Flexing and bending are the same. 

These letters of the alphabet are described in " Light 
Gymnastics." 

The lunging motions. The first is the three-quarter 
lunge, in which case the foot is carried forward three 
times its own length ; second, the regulation lunge, as 
used in fencing. In many drills men prefer the three- 
quarter lunge and make the charging motion the same 
distance. It is necessary, nevertheless, that the class 
should be well trained in the full fencing lunge (four 
foot lengths). The first of these movements is given in 
as many directions as the charging motion. The second 
is given in but one direction — to the front. Do not give 
the full lunge to beginners. The command is similar to 
that for charging. 

Hopping. It is not necessary to pay much attention 
to this exercise, as it is easily learned. It consists of 
leaping up and down, landing on the ball of the foot. 
The heel is not brought in contact with the floor. The 
teacher should instruct the scholars to hop as lightly as 
possible and not to jar the body. 

The hopping movements are given either upon the 
right, upon the left, or upon both feet, while a pleasant 
variation is found in allowing the scholars to hop in the 
air, separate the feet, and land with a wide base, to hop 
again in the air, touch the heels, and come down in the 
starting position. The wide base may be made with the 
feet placed sidewise, or one foot forward and the other 
backward. The command is, " Hopping, on the right 
(or left) foot (so many times), hop. 11 



THE ALPHABET. 163 

Running. There is little trouble in teaching running 
to boys and girls when young. In the gymnasium small 
girls will run as gracefully and as well as boys, but they 
have not the strength or the staying power. After a 
certain age, however, the girl seems to forget the use of 
her arms, and runs with an awkward gait that must re- 
sult from the arms being held rigidly at the side. Run- 
ning consists of a series of leaps or hops, and if the child 
has been well drilled in the fourth exercise of the alpha- 
bet, the fifth will be easier. 

How to sit: Pupils occupy two positions at the desk, 
namely, "attention" and "rest." The first consists of 
sitting upright, the back free from the desk or chair, the 
chest arched, the head erect, the hands clasped and rest- 
ing on the desk. The second, or " rest," permits the 
pupil to sit at ease in any good position of rest, to lean 
against the back of the desk, and to let the hands rest 
in the lap. 

The reader is referred to the admirable work of Dr. 
Eliza M. Mosher, of Brooklyn, N. Y., on " The Posture 
of School Children." The command is, "Scholars, 
attention," or, "Scholars, rest." 



CHAPTEE XIV. 

THE VOICE. — COMMANDS. 

A criticism frequently made by people who are com- 
petent to express their views on the subject, is this : 
many of the young men and young women who teach 
gymnastics do not know how to give commands. They 
do not understand how to use the voice in teaching. 
The speaking voice is pleasing, soft, and all that can be 
desired ; but these are not the qualities for commanding 
a class. Much depends upon the manner in which the 
tone is made. The short, sharp, quick, decisive word 
which starts a class at once need not be cross or unkind ; 
it is better than the sleepy command which fails to 
"stir" the pupils. 

The question has been asked: "Can I, with my 
naturally weak voice, acquire the penetrating power that 
will be of service to me when I stand before a large 
number of pupils?" Yes, you can educate the voice, 
you can so train it that, when before your scholars, it 
will possess the desirable qualities. The teacher's natural 
voice may be shrill, which is unpleasant ; and, while it 
may be deepened a few tones in speaking and command- 
ing, it stops at a certain register. I should advise the 
teacher, therefore, to practice the commands daily. 
Every teacher should follow the advice of Comenius and 
" learn by doing." Each day something new is acquired 

164 



THE VOICE.— COMMANDS. 165 

by teaching. When walking along the streets, going 
home or coming back to the gymnasium, she should say 
over to herself one command, until perfectly learned. 
Not only repeat the command, but associate with the 
words the results. Let us take, for example, the com- 
mand, "To the rear, march / " Repeat these words until 
it is understood which part of the command is prepara- 
tion and which execution, remembering that there are 
two parts to every command : the first, which is called 
the preparatory command, such as, " To the rear" ; the 
second, which is the command of execution, such as the 
word march. Associate this command with someone 
walking along the street, and say, " To the rear, march ! 
To the rear, march!' 1 ' 1 understanding that the word 
march must be given as the right foot comes to the 
ground. In the gymnasium it is advisable for the 
teacher to give commands to pupils who are stationed 
at the further part of the room. It is also a good plan to 
have the scholars stand with their backs to the teacher, 
when she is giving commands. Frequently when the 
teacher faces the class, the meaning is made evident by 
some motion of the arm or hand. If, however, she 
stands so that the class cannot see her, the clearness of 
the commands is tested. 

The voice must be animated, clear, distinct. The 
commands should be given slowly at first, until the 
teacher can pronounce every part of the word and utter 
clearly every syllable. Later on the commands can be 
given very rapidly. 

If the voice is weak, how can we train it? One 
method is by pronouncing the vowels a, e, d, and o; 



166 METHODS OF TEACHING GYMNASTICS. 

then pronouncing the word ha, or haw, until there is 
sufficient force back of the letter h to cany the voice to 
all parts of the room. The face is raised ; do not give 
commands with the head forward. Rather aim the 
voice above the heads of the class so that, like a ball 
from a gun, it will ascend and go beyond them. If able 
to play a few chords on the piano, the teacher should 
practice singing the vowels until she can make the tones 
in the front part of the mouth ; or, as one of our German 
teachers of singing has expressed it, " beyond the lips." 
When she has acquired this art she will know it, but 
until then the voice has a muffled sound, is back in the 
throat, tires her, and is disagreeable to the scholars. 
Possibly the reader may recall the sing-song tones of 
some school-teacher, as she called the children to the 
blackboard or drilled them in the three R's — the tire- 
some, monotonous, high-keyed voice that was exaspera- 
ting. It is heard in too many schools to-day. It irritates 
the pupils. We too often find this voice in the gym- 
nasium. 

The voice for speaking and singing is different from 
that which is educated to give orders. The voice is one 
of the important mediums of transferring our wishes 
and our desires to the members of the class. When begin- 
ning to teach gymnastics the instructor will have to use 
the voice from one to four hours daily. If she has 
properly exercised vocal cords, the voice will not be 
greatly fatigued. With practice the voice can be used 
six or seven hours daily. The principal of a state normal 
school in Connecticut said : " I would rather you would 
spend more time drilling my girls in giving commands 



THE VOICE.— COMMANDS. 167 

and in using their voices, than to put aside so much time 
for the gymnastic exercises. The gymnastic lesson, such 
as we shall give in the schoolroom, is easily learned, but 
the commands are not. We find that our teachers do 
not know how to describe the exercises and associate 
them with the wording of orders." 

In our American system of gymnastics there is no 
nomenclature. One teacher gives one command to pro- 
duce a stated result, another gives another command to 
produce the same result. The Germans have names or 
terms which are known to all the members of the North 
American Turn Bund. The German teacher from New 
York City can go to San Francisco, New Orleans, St. 
Xiouis, or Chicago, where he will find his commands 
obeyed immediately. They are already known ; one 
command means one thing. The Swedes have a system 
of commands that is universal. The Americans have 
not. 

We must pay more attention to the voices, and make a 
study of the nomenclature used in gymnastics. I shall 
never forget the lesson learned from one of my first 
teachers, Mr. E. J. Roberts, of the Young Men's Chris- 
tian Association in Boston. He had a fine, clear voice, 
so full of enthusiasm and energy that it inspired the 
boys. They worked with a will and pleasure that were 
noticeable. Much of Mr. Roberts' success with young 
men was due to his voice. Nearly twenty years have 
passed since then, but the lesson was well learned and 
will not be forgotten, and I shall take pleasure in thank- 
ing Mr. Roberts for the help he gave me in this direc- 
tion. The gymnastic instructor who possesses a poor 



168 METHODS OF TEACHING GYMNASTICS. 

voice should take a few lessons in singing, she should 
practice reading aloud, speaking slowly and very dis- 
tinctly, should take every opportunity to strengthen 
and purify the tones when giving commands. This can 
be done at every lesson. Make a note of the words that 
are hard to pronounce. Do not spend too much time on 
the orders you can give well ; they are cared for. Drill 
your pupils in counting aloud and count with them. 
Work with and without music. To drill a class with 
piano accompaniment requires a strong voice. Let part 
of the class sing while the rest exercise, and sing with 
them. 

If a great part of the success of a teacher is due to the 
voice itself, much, depends on the method of giving the 
command. The teacher must remember that it is harder 
to teach an exercise not shown, but described. She 
should therefore take pains to make her commands so 
clear that they will be easily understood. To do this the 
command must be a short one, the wording must be 
simple. If the command is a new one there should be a 
short period between the explanation and the word of 
execution, during which time the class thinks. All ex- 
ercises should commence with the word begin, and be 
stopped by the word halt. After a command has been 
explained the teacher can say, "Ready, begin! 11 This 
allows more time. 

When giving the commands for a compound exercise, 
part of which is new, comparatively new, or difficult, go 
rapidly over the exercises that are automatic, because 
they are controlled by the nerve centers ; but very slowly 
over the motions that are new, or not so well learned. 



THE VOICE.— COMMANDS. 169 

This is perhaps a fine point in teaching, but it is worth 
considering. The teacher wishes to give the exercise 
shown in Fig. 15, which consists of swinging the 
right arm out, the left arm front, turning the face to 
the left, and a reverse charge with the right leg to the 
front. The easy exercises are swinging the arms and 
turning the head. The difficult part (we do not say it is 
new) is the reverse charge. The command is, " On the 
count one take a reverse charge with the right foot to 
the front ; at the same time swing the right arm out, 
the left arm front, and turn the head to the left. Ready, 
One/" A study of the exercise or posture shows that 
the arms, head, and leg go in different directions, which 
is harder than having all go in the same direction. Four 
members of the body move at once, which is a more 
complicated exercise than using one member. Three of 
the movements are easy, one is hard. The movement of 
the head or either arm is automatic, but the combination 
of arm and head movements in different directions is 
not. Therefore the command must be so given that this 
will be made plain to the pupil. The charging motion 
is a reverse one. The direction associated with the right 
foot is to the right ; we want the foot to go to the front. 
Therefore the command will thus be emphasized : " On 
the count one take a reverse charge with the right leg 
to the front (short pause), at the same time swing the 
right arm out (pause), the left arm front (pause), and 
turn the face to the left. Beady (pause), One ! " It is 
more than likely that the majority will take the posture 
correctly. 
When giving commands it is imperative that certain 



170 METHODS OF TEACHING GYMNASTICS. 

words be emphasized. The emphasis must be on work 
that is not automatic. There should be pauses, not too 
long, that the pupil may grasp the idea. The command 
should not be too long, else the pupil forgets. It should 
not be too short, as it may not be explicit. Remember 
this rule : Make the commands simple and clear, as the 
class does an exercise according to its interpretation of 
the teacher's words. 

Few, very few teachers make a study of the wording 
of a command, but all admit that commands are neces- 
sary, and all give them, but all do not get the same re- 
sults. One teacher says turn, another twist; one says 
flex and extend, another bend and straighten. Circling 
and swinging are not synonymous. The first applies to 
all circles made with clubs or bells, the second to the 
pendulum motion of arms or legs. Foot placing and 
foot stepping are often applied to the same exercise. 
Step the right foot forward, and take one step forward 
with the right foot are not the same, but are frequently 
used by teachers in either sense. If instructors will be 
careful about not expressing commands in several differ- 
ent ways to produce one and the same result, we shall 
soon have a start made to establish a nomenclature in 
American gymnastics. 



CHAPTEE XV. 

HINTS ON TEACHING A CLASS OF BOYS. 

"A boy," says Plato, " is the most vicious of all wild 
beasts." It is true that they are hard to manage in the 
gymnasium, not because they are naturally vicious or 
bad, but because of the surplus of animal spirits which 
keeps them in constant motion. The teacher must re- 
member that it is well for the boy to dispose of this 
" animal life," and that by switching it in the right direc- 
tion she can turn it to good account, thus preventing the 
disorder and unpleasantness which will surely arise if 
the teacher does not understand boy nature. It requires 
an artist to teach a child, but it requires an artist and a 
master to teach a boy. Some of the essential features of 
successful teaching are these : 

In the first place, boys must be kept busy from the 
time they enter the gymnasium until they leave it. 
Again, they must be kept interested in the lesson. No 
teacher can successfully conduct a class of this character 
if the boys dislike the work. The result is too well 
known, the harsh, imperative commands, the driving of 
the boys, as one would drive animals with a whip, the 
incessant threats, the confusion, the general dissatisfac- 
tion. Interest, therefore, is an important feature. 

The boys must be kept in order. The question arises 
now, What is meant by order in a boys' class? perfect 

171 



172 METHODS OF TEACHING GYMNASTICS. 

silence, no whispering, no movement of the body ? No. 
Nothing is gained by compelling the boys to maintain 
I perfect silence. They cannot be kept perfectly still, there- 
fore allow them to whisper, and during the short inter- 
vals of rest allow them to converse with each other and 
to move around some. The class in light gymnastics, of 
course, is kept busy, and will not have the opportunity 
to converse or to make bodily movements other than 
those which are given by the teacher. In heavy gym- 
nastics, however, it is different. Here the boys must 
wait while the rest of the class are taking their turns on 
the bars, bucks, or rings. The busy boy is well looked 
after ; the one who is at leisure is not. He will therefore 
amuse himself by striking, pushing, or pulling his com- 
panions, by leaving the ranks, climbing the ropes, jump- 
ing on other pieces of apparatus, or playing with the 
chest weights. This, of course, must not be tolerated. 
Let the boys laugh and talk, but not shout ; allow them 
some latitude, but under no circumstances permit a boy 
to leave the ranks and touch another piece of appa- 
ratus. 

I will digress at this point long enough to say that if a 
certain hour is set aside for the gymnastic training of a 
boy, he should not be allowed to go on the floor before 
that time nor to remain after the lesson is finished. If 
the teacher allows the boys to violate this rule and to 
play on the gymnasium floor, then he should at least see 
that all apparatus is pulled out of their reach and that 
they are not permitted to lower it. 

Discipline forms an important part of a boy's training. 
Make few rules, but enforce them. The boy will very 



HINTS ON TEACHING A CLASS OF BOYS. 173 

soon know whether the teacher intends to do this, and 
he will obey them or disobey them according to his 
opinion of the teacher. If a rule is made, it must be 
enforced. The first boy who violates it must meet with 
prompt and speedy punishment. There can be no dilly- 
dallying, delaying, or apologizing. Spencer has said 
that the boy who picks up a hot coal will be burned ; 
the second time he picks up a coal he will be burned ; 
the third time he attempts to do this he will be burned. 
Let the teacher of gymnastics learn from this. A boy 
violates a law, he is punished ; he violates it a second 
time, he is punished. The third time he knows better, 
and he forms a better opinion of the teacher, he likes 
him better, and the parents are satisfied. 

There is nothing that will cause disorder quicker than 
poor discipline. Many teachers are afraid of certain 
boys. They are not willing to incur the wrath or dis- 
pleasure of the parents, or they know that such and such 
a boy is the son of one of the trustees, the principal of 
the school, or some man of prominence in the com- 
munity. They are afraid to punish these boys. This of 
course will not do. Any boy, regardless of name and 
position, must expect to suffer the penalty of violating a 
law. It has been my pleasure to teach boys for nearly 
fifteen years, and I have yet to have any serious trouble 
with such parents, if I punished their boys. I have 
found that, in the majority of cases, the boy who is 
punished for wrong-doing does not complain at home. 
Only that one who has been wrongly punished will 
complain, and of course he has a right to do so. In such 
a case it is the duty of the teacher to settle the matter 



174 METHODS OF TEACHING GYMNASTICS. 

rightly. The instructor in gymnastics who makes a 
mistake will, at times, be obliged to acknowledge it. If 
he does not he loses prestige with the class. 

The advice given by McLaren, in his work on heavy 
gymnastics, is good : Do not attempt to have, perfect 
discipline from boys in heavy gymnastics, but approach 
as near as possible this ideal when teaching light work. 
Make allowance for the animal spirits and the life of 
your boys. 

We all have to deal with the bad boy in the class. He 
is found everywhere. He is unruly at home, mischiev- 
ous in school, mean with the other boys. It is not wise 
to spend too much time with this boy before the other 
members of the class. Let him understand at the start 
that you will not be trifled with, and that you do not in- 
tend to keep the other members of the class waiting 
while you punish him. It is not wise for you to lose 
your temper and scold the entire class just to punish 
one boy. It seems cowardly. An angry teacher cannot 
control boys. Do not, therefore, lose your temper with 
this refractory lad, but send him at once to his home, or 
to your office, and deal with him after the rest of the 
boys have gone. It is often the case that the boys them- 
selves will punish such a comrade by their general 
opinion of him. 

Do not give to your boys too much light work. Have 
you ever watched a number of children when they were 
allowed to enter a gymnasium for the first time ? If you 
have not I should advise you to do so, and learn from 
your own observation. What do they do at first ? The 
boys rush for the ropes, they climb upon the ladders, 



HINTS ON TEACHING A CLASS OF BOYS. 175 

they put their legs through the rings, swing on the 
trapeze, jump over the sticks, " shin up " the poles. 

What lesson are we to learn from this ? That the in- 
teresting part of the gymnasium to these children — and 
I include under this head both boys and girls— is the 
heavy apparatus. They are fond of climbing, swinging, 
jumping, and leaping, but they do not like free and light 
gymnastics. I should therefore give to my classes 
plenty of heavy work, and should include in the lesson 
games and contests. One successful teacher of boys 
said that he knew "the nature of the beasts," and that 
he was successful because he compelled them to use their 
own energies, and he took advantage of their own de- 
sires. If play is the strong, the controlling passion of a 
child, then turn it to use in the gymnasium. The 
teacher must have a method, must follow out certain 
plans. There must be progression. No teacher of gym- 
nastics should keep the class at the same work day after 
day. They must advance. This is especially true in 
free work. I have often told my boys that it was neces- 
sary for them to take a certain amount of medicine in 
the gymnasium, have made some fun of the light work, 
and we have gone through this part of the lesson, arous- 
ing a certain amount of interest. 

You can keep the attention of a class of this kind by 
frequently giving them a lesson in " developing work." 
Take for the subject of a lesson the muscles of the arms, 
allow them to use light iron dumb bells, or take the one- 
pound wooden bell, and give each exercise from twenty 
to fifty times. There is no reason why we should give 
an exercise eight or sixteen times except that, in the case 



176 METHODS OF TEACHING GYMNASTICS. 

of piano accompaniment, it is better to make the changes 
at the end of a measure. In developing work do not 
always use the music. Give a certain number of move- 
ments for the biceps, then for the triceps. Exercises are 
taken for the front and the back of the forearm. Fre- 
quently at the close of the lesson measurements of the 
arms are taken, and the boys are greatly interested in 
the little increase they have made. 

Fun is a good weapon to make use of in teaching boys. 
Make the lesson lively, start the pupils laughing. A 
good joke does no harm. Boys are greatly interested in 
what the college men do, and it is well for the teacher 
to become acquainted with college methods and to give 
the series of exercises that are used by the members of 
the crew, the nine, and the teams. 

The teacher must be on the lookout for the timid boy. 
He will hold back from jumping exercises, he will drop 
out of the contests, he will hide rather than do the high 
jumping. He is afraid of his comrades, and shrinks 
from their laughter. This child should be dealt with, if 
the teacher has time, at the close of the lesson. By tak- 
ing him apart from the rest, he can be taught to jump 
over the stick, to take a standing broad jump, and per- 
haps to hang by his knees on the bar. All boys are not 
alike, and the lesson cannot be likened to a coat that 
will fit each member of the class. 

The reckless boy must be held in check. He is found 
wherever the boys congregate. He will do just a little 
more than any one else ; he climbs higher, he tries to 
jump farther, he does many tricks that are dangerous. 
He should be repressed. 



HINTS ON TEACHING A CLASS OF BOYS. 177 

There is the fat boy, who is the butt of the class. They 
laugh at his attempts, they find much merriment in his 
failure to execute the tricks. He laughs with them, but 
in the majority of cases he feels it, and you will notice 
that this boy will, sooner or later, drop out of the class, 
and the parents will complain that you have allowed the 
other boys to make fun of him. Under no conditions 
allow the boys to make fun of any one. A certain 
amount of laughter is tolerated when a boy makes a 
mistake, but the guying and, as the college men say, 
the "horsing " of any boy must not be tolerated. 

Look out for accidents. They are apt to happen during 
the periods of " break ranks " and rest. They are sure 
to occur if the scholars are allowed to go on to the floor 
before the class begins or if they are permitted to remain 
at the close of the lesson. An accident reflects discredit 
upon the teacher, whether he is to blame or not, and 
the parents or guardians lay this up against the gym- 
nasium. The teacher, of course, has in his office the 
necessary bandages for binding up arms. If he is a 
physician he can look after the bruises. If he is not, it 
is well for him to have taken some work in emergencies, 
that he may prepare the case for the physician. 

The teacher should be careful about giving " break 
ranks" too frequently. This division of the hour is a 
good one : the class is called into line and receives a 
short drill in military work ; but it is not wise to give 
instruction in this line of gymnastics unless military 
discipline accompanies the teaching. Do not try to 
teach forming twos and fours, or marching four or five 
abreast, unless the order is good. Single file marching, 



178 METHODS OF TEACHING GYMNASTICS. 

marching on tiptoes or on the heels, some drills in 
facings — this simple work can be given.* 

Free gymnastics should be given at each lesson. The 
teacher should make a point of dealing with the most 
common physical defects. While it is well for the exer- 
cises to be arranged according to the laws of Ling, if the 
time is short there can be changes made in the day's 
order. The boys should be drilled at every lesson in ex- 
ercises for widening and deepening the chest, increasing 
the capacity of the lungs, and strengthening the action 
of the heart. There should be precipitant or running 
work given, and certain drills for developing the muscles 
along the spine. 

After the free work, a few minutes should be set aside 
for a drill in light gymnastic exercises with the bells or 
wands, this to be followed by the regular drill in heavy 
work, and the lesson to close with a jump or a game. 

If the hour were to be divided into minutes we would 
arrange the lesson about as follows : 

Military work, about 8 minutes. 

Rest, 2 minutes. 

Free work, corrective work, and running, 10 minutes. 

Rest, 3 minutes. 

Light gymnastics, bells, wands, or clubs, 10 minutes. 

Rest, 3 minutes. 

Heavy gymnastics and the game, the rest of *the hour. 

See that the boys go directly to the dressing room 
when the class is dismissed, that they take their baths, 
dress quietly, and leave the building. Do not allow the 



* The author has planned lessons for a boys' class for one year 
which can be obtained at the Yale Gymnasium. 



HINTS ON TEACHING A CLASS OF BOYS. 179 

crowd of boys to go rushing pellmell to the dressing 
room, take their time putting on their clothing, and go 
home when they please. Give them from fifteen to 
twenty minutes to go to the dressing room, make the 
necessary changes, do what bathing they are allowed 
to do, and leave the building. The boy who remains 
after this time should be carefully questioned. If it is 
found that his clothing has been tied in a knot, that his 
shoes have been taken away, or that he has lost any- 
thing, request him in the future to report any loss, that 
assistance may be given him. If he had no good reason 
for remaining beyond the twenty minutes, punish him — 
the first time by a reprimand, the second time by the 
loss of the lesson. A reliable monitor should be stationed 
in the dressing room if the teacher does not go with the 
boys, but he certainly should accompany them. 

One unpleasant element in the handling of boys is 
their yelling when allowed to leave the classroom and 
go to the baths. They should be warned beforehand, 
and if they violate the rule the class should be 
punished— in which case the innocent will suffer with 
the guilty, but we cannot at first tell which boys caused 
the trouble. The honest boys would tell the truth and 
be punished for their honesty, while those who would lie 
about it would go free, and be rewarded for dishonesty. 
By punishing the entire class — which may be preventing 
their doing the work which they most liked at the next 
lesson— the yelling would very soon stop, and the boys 
who were not to blame would settle the question with 
those who were. If it is true, and we know it is, that 
boys are fond of yelling, give them a drill in counting 



180 METHODS OF TEACHING GYMNASTICS. 

aloud and let them have a class yell, or work them with 
so much ardor that they will not feel like indulging in 
this form of fun after they have finished their lesson. 

There will be some stealing going on in the gym- 
nasium. The teacher should request the boys to leave 
their money and valuables in the office. Keys to the 
lockers will be lost, shoes and stockings will be taken, 
costumes will be missing; but these are some of the 
thorns which prick the flesh of our instructors in gym- 
nastics. We must expect them. We must use a great 
deal of care in dealing with a case of theft. The best 
way to prevent things of this kind is for the teacher to 
be with the boys when they come to the gymnasium, 
while they are exercising, and remain with them until 
they leave. 

One word about the class falling in or taking foot- 
marks. A bell can be rung, and the scholars should be 
given from fifteen to sixty seconds to take their places 
on the floor. It is well for the teacher to notice, before 
the bell is rung, that the boys are not too high up on 
the ladders, or up in the rafters of the building, so that 
in their hurry to take their places they will not fall. 
Then he can wait the allotted number of seconds after 
the bell has rung, when the boy who has not reported or 
who is late must be called to account. Otherwise several 
commands are given for the class to fall in, a great deal 
of shouting is indulged in, the bell is rung so many 
times that it loses its value. The bell should be rung 
but once; the teacher waits a certain number of seconds ; 
those who are late are punished. The question is very 
soon settled ; the boys soon learn to respond rapidly. If , 



HINTS ON TEACHING A CLASS OF BOYS. 181 

these rules are enforced strictly the first day, they must 
be enforced the second day ; at no time can the teacher 
be lax. 

Interest has been aroused by placing in the gymnasium 
a bulletin board, upon which we put the names of the 
boys and the records they make. We organize, in nearly 
every case, a gymnasium society. A president, vice- 
president, secretary, and treasurer are elected, also a 
captain of the teams. The secretary keeps the names of 
the boys, the record of their strength tests, their height, 
weight, and lung capacity — keeping only a few, not 
many. The boys are allowed to test their lungs perhaps 
once a week ; we see and note the number of times they 
can dip on the bars or pull up on the horizontal bar, and 
the record is kept. This is a simple means of arousing 
and maintaining interest. 

It will be found that a certain number of buys cut their 
lessons, especially the first part ; they will come in late 
to the class. The boys who do this should be excused 
from the interesting part of the work. They will in 
future report in time for that part of the hour which is 
not interesting to them, viz. : light work. The teacher 
must remember that the boy should have an opportunity 
to give reasons, and the teacher acts as the judge and 
settles the questions. 

Give talks on health and morals, tell stories while the 
boys are seated on the floor, or it may be that once in a 
while they can be called together in some recitation 
room for this purpose. 

I do not believe that women should teach heavy gym- 
nastics to boys. It is better that a man take charge of 



182 METHODS OF TEACHING GYMNASTICS. 

tiiis work. The reason is plain. Boys respect those who 
can do better work than they can. The teacher is se- 
verely criticised by the members of the boys' class if it 
is found that he or she cannot do the work upon the 
bars or upon the ticks that some of the boys in the class 
can do. It is galling to the teacher, and not pleasant 
for the class. 

The teacher must overlook some things. It is not al- 
ways wise to stir up the small gossip which is found in a 
boys' class, nor wise to make a great ado about nothing. 

The best way to handle boys is by kindness. Threaten 
as little as possible. 

The teacher should observe the faces of the boys, and 
in case any one shows great fatigue, the face is pale, the 
breathing irregular, or the child places the hand upon 
the side, showing that there is pain, this boy must be 
looked after, the heart examined, the lungs tested, or 
he should be allowed to go to the office and rest. Re- 
member that the small boys will work as hard as they 
can to keep up with big boys, that the weak will do, or 
try to do, the work of the strong. 

Avoid being partial. Look out for favoritism. Once 
in a while a question box can be placed in the gymna- 
sium and the boys allowed to write questions and place 
them here. These are to be answered either by the 
teacher or by some member of the class. Whistling is 
given to the class frequently, also singing. Rope splicing 
is taught if the class is small and the time will permit. 
I urge the teacher to make a study of books that will 
be interesting to boys. 



CHAPTER XVI. 

MILITARY GYMNASTICS. 

The chapter devoted to this subject will contain sug- 
gestions for the beginner, yet it may be that those who 
have had many years' experience will find hints that 
will be helpful. 

Only a few of the maneuvers have been described, but 
by studying these the observant teacher will be able 
to apply the principles to the more intricate evolutions. 
The text is taken from both the old and new tactics, but 
is frequently modified from the requirements of soldiers 
to those of pupils. The descriptions are for single ranks 
only. The teacher who wishes to know more of mili- 
tary work than is described here will find in the book 
entitled "Light Gymnastics," by the same author, a 
series of illustrated marching movements. 

The position of attention. An analysis of the position 
of a soldier will draw our attention to thirteen points, 
with all of which the instructor should be familiar. 
The question "Why?" is so frequently asked that it is 
at times embarrassing to the teacher if she has not 
given sufficient study to the subject to answer readily. 
The description of this position, taken from Upton, is : 

Heels on the same line, as near to each other as the 
conformation of the body will permit. 

183 



184 METHODS OF TEACHING GYMNASTICS. 

The feet turned out equally, forming with- each other 
an angle of about sixty degrees. 

Knees straight, without stiffness of body. 

The body erect on the hips, inclining a little for- 
ward. 

Shoulders square, and falling equally. 

Arms hanging naturally. 

Elbows near the body. 

Fingers closed and extended, thumb along the first 
finger. 

Palms of the hands turned slightly to the front. 

Little finger behind the seam of the trousers. 

Head erect and to the front. 

Chin slightly drawn in, without constraint. 

Eyes straight to the front, and striking the ground at 
about the distance of fifteen yards. 

The new tactics have modified this arrangement, and 
give for the position of a soldier the following rules : 

Heels on the same line, and as near each other as the 
conformation of the man permits. 

Feet turned out equally and forming with each other 
an angle of about sixty degrees. 

Knees straight, without stiffness. 

Body erect on the hips, inclining a little forward ; 
shoulders square, and falling equally. 

Arms and hands hanging naturally, backs of the hands 
outward ; little fingers opposite the seams of the trou- 
sers ; elbows near the body. 

Head erect and square to the front; chin slightly 
drawn in, without constraint; eyes straight to the 
front. 



MILITARY GYMNASTICS. 185 

The Swedish position of attention, or, as it is termed, 
the fundamental standing position, is this : 

Heels together or slightly apart. 

Feet at an angle of ninety degrees. 

Knees straight. 

Hips carried backward. 

Chest forward and well expanded. 

Shoulders held back and down. 

Head erect. 

Chin drawn in. 

Arms along the sides. 

Palms flat, on the outside of the thighs, and drawn 
slightly backward. 

Weight of the body carried well forward.* 

In the main points the Swedish, German, and Ameri= 
can fundamental standing positions are similar. They 
vary principally in detail. It is not our intention so 
much to discuss the merits of the position, but rather 
how we shall teach it. While at times we may digress, 
and speak of the comparative merits of this or that ex- 
ercise or position, we shall try to explain the best 
method of presenting the subject, this being more the 
object of the book. 

In the first place, it is easy to commence the descrip- 
tion of the position by beginning at the bottom and de- 
scribing the angle of the feet. With us it is about sixty 
degrees. I know of no serious objection to ninety degrees, 
but think that the small angle is the more natural one. 
A basic attitude of ninety degrees is stronger than one 
only two thirds this size. It is easier to approximate the 

* Posse's "Handbook of School Gymnastics." 



186 METHODS OF TEACHING GYMNASTICS. 

larger base, because a right angle is formed. The heels 
should touch, if the calves of the legs are not too large, 
or the child not knock-kneed. 

Pass from the feet to the knees, which are held as close 
together as the conformation of the body will permit. 
It may be well to warn young teachers about criticising 
pupils for not touching their knees, when they (the 
pupils) are bow-legged. Scholars who have this defect 
are apt to be sensitive about it, although one small boy 
remarked, when the teacher criticised him, that " his 
knees were not on speaking terms." Professor Brosius, 
a very prominent German teacher of gymnastics, said 
that it was possible to overcome this defect by the use of 
will power, and that he had in- his classes young men 
who had been able to bring their knees together by hold- 
ing the correct standing position. An exaggerated 
movement of the hips backward will sometimes assist 
the scholar in touching the knees. If the bow in the 
leg extends from the knee to the ankle, it is, of course, a 
different matter. 

Pass from the knees to the hips, which should be 
forced back, and from this part of the body to the chest, 
which should be well arched. By giving these two 
commands and insisting upon their being obeyed, we do 
away with having to call attention to the prominent 
abdomen. 

Next the shoulders engage our attention. They are 
level, and well drawn back. Some teachers object to 
using the two terms, " arch the chest" and "draw the 
shoulders back," claiming that one cannot be done 
without the other. It is not an important point to dis- 



MILITARY GYMNASTICS. 187 

cuss. By calling attention to the two parts of the body 
additional emphasis is laid on the description. 

The arms should hang naturally at the side, with the 
elbows somewhat back. The hand is in what is termed 
the fundamental position, viz. : fingers close and ex- 
tended, thumb along the first finger. The position of 
the hand may be taught before beginning with any 
other part of the body. 

The head is erect, the eyes to the front. Call attention 
to the fact that if the eyes are cast down the head drops 
forward. For the same reason, do not allow the child to 
look up, because the head will be elevated and the chin 
will protrude. Consequently we say the eyes should be 
cast upon the ground fifteen yards to the front. It is, 
perhaps, clearer to say to the pupil, "Look straight 
ahead." According to the directions given, the chin is 
slightly drawn in. 

We have now finished the parts of the body ; let us 
take it as a whole. The weight is inclined somewhat 
forward on the balls of the feet. This enables the pupil 
to start off promptly. At the same time the fore part of 
the feet form a more springy base than the heels. (See 
Fig. 8.) 

The teacher will notice that we began this description 
at the feet and went up to the head, taking the parts in 
turn. This method of teaching is not, of course, so good 
for children, who are too young to appreciate the details. 
A child in normal physical condition naturally stands 
well. Children are taught by the picture method, so by 
referring to soldiers and asking them to stand as they 
do, we get better results than from a description, which 



188 METHODS OF TEACHING GYMNASTICS. 

is almost meaningless to them. Very frequently the 
teacher may obtain good results by calling to the plat- 
form a well-built boy or girl, and showing the class what 
is meant by the proper standing position. At the same 
time she can have the child stand against the measuring 
pole, to show how easy it is for them to keep the head, 
shoulders, hips, calves, and heels in a straight line. 

The position of attention is the first thing we teach to 
classes. It is important, and the instructor should im- 
press it upon the pupils that they should not only learn 
to hold the body well, but should always keep it so while 
in the gymnasium (or out of it), and they should associate 
this carriage of the body with the gymnasium. 

Let us now consider the next step in teaching military 
work. It will be the rest which follows the constrained 
position of attention. The command is, " Company in 
place, rest!' 1 ' 1 The new tactics give it, "Company, at 
ease!" The former command is preferable. At the 
word of execution, the pupil is allowed at first to stand 
upon either foot, taking the position natural for him. 
This will give the teacher an opportunity to observe the 
easy standing position of the pupils. The position of 
"place rest," advocated by Dr. Eliza Mosher of Brook- 
lyn, N. Y., in her paper entitled "The Influence of the 
Habitual Posture on the Symmetry and Health of the 
Body," should be known by all gymnastic teachers. 
(Fig. 16.) 

Scholars who are in the habit of carrying the weight 
upon the right foot when resting should change, and 
allow the weight to rest upon the other. 

Facings. We use under this heading, right or left, 



% 



Sop?' 








■ ' lite 



i 






wd 



MILITARY GYMNASTICS. 189 

right or left oblique, and right or left about face. The 
facings seem so simple, are apparently so easy to execute, 
and are used so frequently, that little importance is 
attached, not only to their being accurately done, but to 
being correctly taught. Here, as elsewhere, the haste 
that marks our teaching crops out, and the result is 
obvious. The teacher who neglects the rudiments of 
military drill will suffer for her carelessness. She will 
lose many minutes, later in the season, finding fault 
with the class for doing poor work, when she herself is 
to blame. Therefore spend time teaching a class to face, 
first to the right and then to the left, next half face to 
the right and the left, or, as it is termed, right oblique or 
left face. Although it seems, according to the sequence 
of movements, that the oblique should be taught before 
the full right or left face, it is customary to teach the 
ninety degree turn first. Not enough time is spent in 
teaching the oblique facings ; consequently, when march- 
ing in single file and the command is given, "Column 
half right (or left), march! " it will be noticed that the 
scholars do not clearly understand the movement, nor 
do they execute it well. 

I have taught, and shall continue to teach, the facings 
in this manner: With the body as one piece, turn forty- 
five degrees or a right oblique, ninety degrees or a right 
face, one hundred and eighty degrees or a right about 
face, on the left heel. The turns to the left are to be 
made upon the same heel. This simplifies the work. The 
question arises at once, Why not use the Swedish facing, 
or that found in the new tactics? My answer is, the 
former is very simple, easily learned, and long remem- 



190 METHODS OF TEACHING GYMNASTICS. 

bered. I have not found it so with the other facings. It 
is essential that the body be well balanced and smartly 
turned. Avoid facing on what is sometimes termed the 
instalment plan — the head going first, the shoulders 
next, etc. 

The facing, as described by Upton, is as follows : To 
the right or left, command, " Right (or left), face ! " At 
the command face, raise the right foot slightly, face to 
the right, turning on the left heel, the left toe slightly 
raised ; replace the right heel by the side of the left and 
on the same line. The facings to the left are executed 
upon the same heel as the facings to the right. 

The right face, as given in the new tactics, is thus 
described: Command, " Right, face ! " Raise slightly 
the right heel and left toe and face to the right, turning 
on the left heel, assisted by a slight pressure on the ball 
of the right foot ; replace the right foot. 

There is little in this method of facing to the right to 
commend it. It is awkward, hard to teach, difficult to 
learn, and not more sure to produce an accurate turn of 
the body than the old facing. I prefer the Swedish plan, 
in spite of the argument brought against it, that the en- 
tire body is shifted out of place by the latter facing. In 
a short conversation with a well-known West Point 
man, he expressed the opinion that the facing to the 
right, as given in the new tactics, was not satisfactory. 

The Swedish facing is : To face to the flank, com- 
mand, "Right, face! 11 The pupil turns on his right 
heel ninety degrees to the right and supports the motion 
by the ball of the left foot ; when this is done he re- 
places his left foot beside the right one in fundamental 



MILITARY GYMNASTICS. 191 

position. Facing to the right is done on the right heel, 
to the left on the left. 

The teacher, of course, chooses the plan that best suits 
him. It is not so much which method he adopts, but 
how he teaches it. The about facing is very confusing 
to the pupil who tries to remember the different ways. 
For example, there is the about face of the common sol- 
dier as distinguished from that of the officer ; there are 
the Swedish, German, and the new tactics about face, 
in all five kinds. 

To the rear. Command, " About, face ! " At the 
command about, turn on the left heel, bring the left toe 
to the front, carry the right foot to the rear, the hollow 
opposite to and three inches from the left heel, the feet 
square to each other. At the command /ace, turn on 
both heels, raise the toes a little, face to the rear, and 
when the face is nearly completed raise the right foot 
and replace it by the side of the left. (Old tactics.) 

To the rear. Command, "About, face! 11 Raise 
slightly the left heel and right toe, face to the rear, 
turning to the right on the right heel and the ball of the 
left foot ; replace the left foot beside the right. (New 
tactics.) 

Why bother the teacher or pupils with so many terms ? 
I do not like the old tactics face for the soldier, as it 
is hard to teach and remember, and too complicated. 
The new tactics and Swedish about face are similar, and 
both are good ; the about face of the officer is an accu- 
rate and a graceful one ; but the simplest of all, to my 
mind, is the German method. There is truth in the 
argument that one is apt to lose his balance, but I have 



192 METHODS OF TEACHING GYMNASTICS. 

not found that the pupil is long bothered by this 
trouble. 

The teacher must not attempt to teach any facing 
movement, or illustrate it, without having practiced it 
carefully before a looking glass, if this is possible. 

Marking time. Being in march. Command, " Mark 
time, march / " At the command march, given as either 
foot is coming to the ground, continue the cadence and 
make a semblance of marching, without gaining ground, 
by alternately advancing each foot about half its length, 
and bringing it back on a line with the other. 

It is not hard to teach marking time, consequently but 
little space will be given to this subject. Our explana- 
tion of the method of teaching is this : Notice that the 
left foot moves first, not only in marking time, but also 
in marching. Therefore by your drill impress this on the 
minds of the pupils, so that the movement will become 
automatic. This may be done in several ways, one of 
which is to permit the scholar to first stamp lightly with 
the left foot, next to tap the floor with the ball of the 
same foot, then to swing the left foot forward one half 
its length, and finally to teach the regular method. The 
teacher must call attention to the distance allowed for 
swinging the foot, otherwise the pupils will soon throw 
the foot forward more than half its length. Analysis of 
marking time shows that, at the preliminary command, 
"Company, mark time ! " the pupil transfers the weight 
to the right foot. This slight motion of the body is an 
important feature of the drill. When the command 
of execution, Mark ! or, as the tactics give it, March ! 
is given, the left knee is slightly bent, the heel is lifted 



MILITARY GYMNASTICS. 193 

from the floor, the thigh is sufficiently flexed to permit 
the leg to swing forward a short distance. At the finish 
the foot falls back to position, the weight is transferred, 
and the same operation is gone through with the other 
leg. Attention is called to the knee bending, that the 
teacher may know how to prevent the stiff leg marking 
time. We can tell by the action of the heads whether 
the members of the class are marking time in unison. 

The Germans, when marking time, accent the move- 
ment, extending the foot forward and downward, point- 
ing with the toes. The teacher may have noticed that, 
when the scholars take an exercise that is noisy, such as 
stamping the foot or slapping the hands, they work more 
in unison than when executing a movement in silence. 
Therefore, make use of this, and begin marking time by 
making a noise, as stamping the foot. This method is 
used not only for children, but even for adults. I have 
often had more difficulty in instructing a class of teachers 
to mark time than children, but the principles of teach- 
ing a child are good for adults too. 

The start. The start, in marching, must receive atten- 
tion, as the relative position of the files and the even- 
ness of the lines depend, to some extent, upon it. It is 
better, therefore, to drill the pupils when standing in a 
line, **. e., side by side, than when in a file, one back of 
the other. Use the new tactics so far as possible, when 
drilling a line ; that is, allow six or eight inches between 
persons. This may be secured by permitting them to 
place the left hand on the hip. (See aligning and falling 
in, ) The command may be given, " Company, forward, 
march ! " At the command forward, the pupils trans- 



194 METHODS OF TEACHING GYMNASTICS. 

fer the weight to the right foot and incline the body 
forward. Drill the class in this movement several times, 
bringing them back to the fundamental standing posi- 
tion, or attention, by the command, "As you were." 
At the command 'march, the pupil steps off' briskly with 
the left foot, taking a natural length step. It is of little 
use to tell the members of a class to step twenty or 
twenty-five inches. Point or aim the body at a certain 
point on the opposite wall, and march in a direct line to 
the front. The step should be even and the cadence 
regular. In our marching, we take about 65 steps a 
minute for common time, 90 steps for quick time, 48 for 
slow, and from 120 to 180 for double time. 

The halt. The command halt is given at the discretion 
of the teacher, who says, " Company, halt ! " The com- 
mand of execution is given as either foot comes to the 
floor, plant this foot, take one additional step, and bring 
the heels together. This allows them time to think, and 
the halt is made on the third count. Later the company 
can halt on one or two counts. The halt from marking 
time is generally made, during the early teaching, in 
two counts after the command ; thus, "Company, halt, 
one, two ! " Finally the halt can be made on one count. 
The pupils must be thoroughly drilled on the halt and 
on the start. Here, as before, we may make use of a 
noisy start and stop, permitting the pupils to stamp the 
left foot on the first step after the command, " Company, 
forward, march!" and to repeat the stamp on the last 
count after the command halt. This plan of teaching is 
used by both the Swedes and the Germans. 

It is out of the question for a teacher to expect to have 



MILITARY GYMNASTICS. 195 

a well-drilled class if she does not pay strict attention to 
these details. They are not always observed in our mili- 
tary companies, nor do pupils fancy them, but the 
choice is not to be left to the pupil. The start and halt 
in marching may be better taught and learned if the 
teacher will drill the class in taking first one, then two, 
and finally three or more steps, thus : The teacher after 
showing the exercise commands, "Class one step for- 
ward, counting aloud, march! 11 At the command 
■march, the scholar advances the left foot and counts 
one ; he brings the right foot alongside of the left, and 
counts two. Thus he has taken one step, but has counted 
two. In this way he will advance two steps and count 
three, or three steps and count four, there being one 
more count than step, the halt being made on the last 
count. In taking steps, the pupil advances first the left, 
and then the right foot. 

An example of how to teach a step may be given here, 
and it will be of service to the new teacher. She says, 
"I want the members of the class to take one step for- 
ward, this way" ; she shows the exercise. The picture 
has been drawn, and the class has a better idea of what 
the teacher wants them to do. She then says, " As you 
take the step forward, count, this way"; she again 
illustrates the movement and counts. By this time the 
dullest one in the class understands what is to be done. 
The teacher then says, "At the command march, take 
one step" ; and in a firm, decided way she repeats the 
command and gives the word of execution. It has 
taken but a short time, the exercise has been carefully 
illustrated, and the movement should be well done. 



196 METHODS OF TEACHING GYMNASTICS. 

Change step. Command, "Change step, march!" 
At the command march, given as the right foot comes to 
the ground, the left foot is advanced and planted ; the 
toe of the right is then advanced near the heel of the 
left, the recruit again stepping off with the left. The 
change on the right foot is similarly executed, the com- 
mand march being given as the left foot strikes the 
ground. (New tactics.) 

The pupil will notice that the command is, "Change 
step, march / " I do not like the word march, but prefer 
to repeat the word change, as it produces the same result 
and is more closely associated with the movement than 
the word march. 

We had in one of our military companies an officer 
who seemed to know Upton nearly by heart. He could 
give command after command without omitting a single 
word, his face was animated, his teaching full of life ; 
but when the test came later in the season, and his men 
were drilled in the preliminary movements, it was found 
that they did not do the work so well as the soldiers 
taught by less brilliant officers. One fault was his rapid 
speaking, and the "parrot" fashion in which he gave 
the commands. He did not take enough time to explain 
the movements, he preferred to " rattle off" commands 
in his glib fashion, and he lost his patience when the 
soldiers were apparently dull. The fault, however, was 
his own, and it was due to this that, even in the teaching 
how to change step, he failed. 

This is a difficult exercise to teach. It may be associ- 
ated with another that will be given very soon, viz.: 
"To the rear, march! 11 Instructors seem to have as 



MILITARY GYMNASTICS. 197 

much trouble teaching these two maneuvers as any of 
the simple drills found in military work. There is a 
reason for this. The movement is hard to teach because 
the teacher confuses the right and the left foot. It is 
not easy to say the word march or change just before the 
right foot comes to the floor, immediately after which 
command the movement is executed, consequently there 
is little time in which to think. The command 
" Change step ! " may be given at any time, but the final 
word of execution must be given at a certain time. 

To teach successfully these seemingly simple exercises, 
the teacher should practice the movements before giving 
them to the class, in order that she may bring back to 
her own mind the teaching she received years before. 

No command or movement can be well taught until 
it has been analyzed by the instructor. Changing step 
should be one of the first things taught in a school. If 
it is a difficult matter for an adult to learn this, how 
much harder will it be for a child, and yet few children 
keep step when taking their first lessons. I have never 
attempted to teach a child this movement as I should 
teach it to an adult. The method of instructing little 
ones is by first teaching them which is the left foot, then 
compelling them to stamp the left foot upon a certain 
count, and, without going into the details of the move- 
ment, I have found that they would in a short time 
change step, and do it correctly. Changing step is the 
same movement that a schoolgirl makes when she goes 
skipping along the sidewalk. It is the " hippety-hop " 
that children know so well. The movement may be 
more quickly learned by adults if they are permitted to 



198 METHODS OF TEACHING GYMNASTICS. 

take one half the movement a number of times in suc- 
cession ; i. e.j to slide the right foot forward, bring the 
left foot up to the heel of the right, step off again with 
the right, and so on. By doing this, they associate the 
special movement in changing step with the command. 

The command change as the left foot comes to the 
floor is not often given. 

Side step. Command, " Right (or left) step, march!" 
Carry the right foot twelve inches to the right, keeping 
knees straight and shoulders square to the front ; as soon 
as the right foot is planted, bring the left foot to the side 
of it, and continue the movement, observing the cadence 
for each foot, as explained for quick time. The side step 
is not executed in double time. (New tactics.) 

This is a simple drill, easily taught and soon learned. 
The only difficulty in teaching this is that the scholars 
slide the feet, which should not be allowed ; they take 
steps that are too long. The command halt is given as 
one foot comes to the floor, the foot is planted and the 
other brought alongside (generally taken on one count). 
In class drills little is gained by giving quick time, there- 
fore the side step is given in common time. Avoid the 
marking time movement of the foot in side step march- 
ing. Take this step. 

Back step. Command, "Backward, march! 11 Step 
back with the left foot fifteen inches straight to the rear, 
measuring from heel to heel, then with the right, and 
so on, the feet alternating. At the command halt, bring 
back the foot in front to the side of the one in rear. 
The back step is used for short distances only and is not 
executed in double time. 



MILITARY GYMNASTICS. 199 

The short step, side step, and back step may be exe- 
cuted from mark time and conversely. 

The back step is an easy movement. There are no 
special rules for teaching it. It is well, however, to 
drill the class in halting from the backward march. It 
can be done in two counts. 

To mar eh to the rear. Being in march, the instructor 
commands, "To the rear, march!" At the command 
anarch, given as the right foot strikes the ground, ad- 
vance and plant the left foot ; then turn on the balls of 
both feet, face to the right about, and immediately step 
off with the left foot. 

We have to teach what seems to be a simple exercise, 
and one which does not receive a great deal of attention in 
many of our military schools. There is a way, however, 
of teaching the movement that will be of assistance to 
the leader. In the first place, the step must be so well 
learned by the instructor, that when standing before a 
class it will be "second nature" to her. Here, as in 
changing step, the teacher will have some trouble in re- 
membering the feet ; that is, she will confuse the right 
and the left. The command " To the rear !" may be 
given at any time ; the command march must be given 
as the right foot strikes the ground. This will permit 
the scholar to advance the left, during which short 
period he has an opportunity to think, then turn 180 
degrees to the right, pivoting upon the balls of both feet, 
and start off in the new direction with the left foot. 

It is a good plan for the teacher to watch people on the 
street and to repeat the command, always thinking the 
word anarch as the right foot comes to the ground. No 



200 METHODS OF TEACHING GYMNASTICS. 

one can instruct a class well who is obliged to think a 
great deal of her own work. Marching to the rear is 
more easily learned if the scholars are permitted to 
stamp the left foot after they have turned 180 degrees. 

Double time. The length of the full step in double 
time is thirty-six inches ; the cadence is at the rate of 
180 steps per minute. To march in double time the com- 
mand is, "Forward, double time, march! " 

At the command forward, throw the weight of the 
body on the right leg ; at the command double time, 
raise the hands until the forearms are horizontal, fingers 
closed, nails toward the body, elbows to the rear. 

At the command march, carry forward the left foot, 
leg slightly bent, knee somewhat raised, and plant the 
foot thirty-six inches from the right ; then execute the 
same motion with the right foot ; continue this alternate 
movement of the feet, throwing the weight of the body 
forward and allowing a natural swinging motion to the 
arms. The pupils should also be exercised in running, 
the principles being the same as for double time. 

When marching in double time and running, the 
pupils breathe as much as possible through the nose, 
keeping the mouth closed. (New tactics.) 

Boys run better than girls. Women, as a rule, are not 
good runners. They keep the arms too still. The arms 
must swing to balance the body, and it is essential that 
the movements be free and elastic. Teach pupils to run 
lightly, quietly, and on tiptoes. One hundred and fifty, 
even two hundred steps, can be taken a minute. Drill 
the class frequently in running in place, the command 
being, " Company, in place, run! " at which time they 



MILITARY GYMNASTICS. 201 

will go through the running movement but do not gain 
ground. From this they can be given either the com- 
mand, " Forward, run ! " or, " Company, halt ! " From 
running in place the halt is made in two counts. We do 
not often give the command halt from double time when 
the class is gaining ground, on account of the impetus 
given the body. It is preferable first to come to slow 
time. Do not touch the heels to the floor when running. 

Alignments. The instructor first teaches the pupils to 
align themselves scholar by scholar, the better to com- 
prehend the principles of alignments ; to this end she 
advances the two scholars on the right three or more 
yards, and having aligned them, commands, "By file, 
right (or left), dress, front ! " 

At the command dress, the pupils move up succes- 
sively in quick time, shortening the last step so as to find 
themselves about six inches behind the alignment. 
Each pupil then moves on the line, which must never 
be passed, taking steps of two or three inches, casting 
his eyes to the right so as to see the buttons on the coat 
of the pupil second from him, keeping his shoulders 
square to the front, and touching with his elbow that of 
the one next to him without opening his arms. 

At the command front, given when the rank is well 
aligned, the pupils cast their eyes to the front and remain 
firm. 

According to the old tactics, the scholars fall in at a 
right face, or one standing directly back of the other. 
This is done in order that new pupils may be easily 
placed in line, or, if changes are made, the file is not so 
apt to be disturbed as it would be if the pupils were 



202 METHODS OF TEACHING GYMNASTICS. 

standing side by side. While the pupils are standing at 
facing distance in single files, instruct them in dressing 
to the front. Facing distance, when in single file, is 
the length of the forearm from the one next in front, 
and is tested by flexing the forearm. (See Fig. 17.) It is 
well to associate the word dress with the "dressing 
down," or the planing of a board. Scholars are to be 
taught that, when the line is perfectly dressed, it is trim, 
neat, and straight. Give the command u Left, face, 11 and 
teach right and left dressing. 

The matter of aligning a class and dressing does not 
require a great deal of practice. The movements are 
easily taught and learned. There is one point, how- 
ever, that will be of service to the teacher, i. e., a rapid 
method of arranging scholars according to their height. 
It is possible to form a file in a short time if the in- 
structor knows how. We generally ask our pupils to 
fall in in a file on one side of the room, according to 
their height, the shortest standing in front and the 
tallest at the rear. Pupils above a certain age are able to 
align themselves in a creditable manner. After "falling 
in," if the instructor stands at some little distance from 
the file, she will be able to tell at a glance whether this 
one or that one is too short, aligning by the heads, and 
not by the height of the shoulders. If a second align- 
ment is to be made, have the shortest one take three 
steps to the left or right. The teacher can then indicate 
who should come next. 

To march in a line. Being in line at a halt, command, 
"Forward, guide right (or left), march!" The pupils 
step off, the guide marching straight to the front. The 



MILITARY GYMNASTICS. 203 

instructor sees that the pupils preserve the interval 
toward the side of the guide ; that they yield to pres- 
sure from that side and resist pressure from the opposite 
direction ; that by slightly shortening or lengthening 
the step, they gradually recover the alignment, and by 
slightly opening out or closing in, they gradually re- 
cover the interval, if lost ; that while habitually keep- 
ing the head to the front, they may occasionally glance 
toward the side of the guide to assure themselves of the 
alignment and interval, but that the head is turned as 
little as possible for this purpose. To change the guide, 
command, "Guide right (or left)." (New tactics.) 

It is taken for granted that the teacher understands 
the difference between a file and a line. (See Terms.) 
Attention is called to the placing of guides when march- 
ing in a line. If the class is a small one, the guide can 
be placed upon the right or the left. If it is a large one, 
I prefer to place the guide in the center, in which case 
the command is, " Company, forward (or backward), 
guide center, march V 

To march by the flank. Being at a halt the instructor 
commands, "Right (or left), face! Forward, march V 
If in march the instructor commands, " By the right (or 
left) flank, march /•" At the command march, given as 
the right foot strikes the ground, advance and plant the 
left foot, then turn to the right and step off in the new 
direction with the right foot. In the march by the 
flank the scholars cover each other and keep closed to 
facing distance, that is, to such distance that in forming 
line the elbows will touch. 

One who understands how to teach right and left face 



204 METHODS OF TEACHING GYMNASTICS. 

will find no difficulty in having the class execute this 
movement when they are at a halt. But it requires 
some thought on the part of the instructor to give the 
command march when the class is in motion. The in- 
structor should try this movement a number of times 
before taking the class, and should drill small rather 
than large squads. 

The flank movement is used a great deal in our march- 
ing. The spectator is not aware that a mistake has been 
made in the facing if all the scholars turn about the 
same time, nor does it annoy the scholars, but it is well 
for them to be drilled in these movements, if time will 
allow and the discipline of the school will permit. 
It must be understood, however, that military work 
amounts to little if the teacher does not have military 
discipline. It seems almost impossible to secure this 
order in a number of our schools. When this is the 
case, reduce the military work to a minimum. 

To change direction in column of files. The members 
of the class have been previously well drilled in right 
and left oblique facing, or half facing to the right and 
the left. An important point to remember is that the 
scholars must learn to march in a direct line to the 
front. In other words, they must "cover points," or 
aim the body at a certain point and walk toward that, 
regardless of where the one next in front goes. In 
"Column half right (or half left)," every member of 
the class must march to the given point and turn forty- 
five degrees, then march in the new direction. One 
reason why these simple movements are so poorly done 
is because the teacher passes rapidly over them, anxious 



MILITARY GYMNASTICS. 205 

to drill the class upon the more elaborate and showy 
exercises. No instructor can secure the best results who 
does not pay attention to detail training. 

To oblique. Being in line at a halt, or marching, com- 
mand, "Right (or left) oblique, march!" Each man 
half faces to the right, at the same time stepping off in 
the new direction. He preserves his relative position, 
keeping his shoulders parallel with those of the one 
next on his right, and so regulates his step as to make 
the head of this pupil conceal the heads of the others 
in the rank. At the command halt, the men halt, faced 
to the front. (New tactics.) 

This maneuver will not be well done until the pupils 
have been thoroughly drilled in right and left oblique 
facing and marching in a direct line. To march in the 
oblique direction when in file is not so hard as to execute 
a similar movement when four or eight are abreast. 

Wheelings. Wheeling on a fixed pivot. Being at a 
halt the instructor commands, u In circle right (or left) 
wheel, march ! " 

At the command march the pupils, except the pivot 
man, step off with the left foot, turning at the same 
time the head a little to the left, the eyes fixed on the 
line of the eyes of the men to their left ; the pivot man 
marks time strictly in his place, gradually turning his 
body, to conform to the movement of the marching 
flank ; the one who conducts this flank takes steps of 
twenty-eight inches, and, from the first step, advances 
the left shoulder a little, casts his eyes along the rank, 
and feels lightly the elbow of the next pupil toward the 
pivot, but never pushes him. 



206 METHODS OF TEACHING GYMNASTICS. 

The others touch with the elbow toward the pivot, 
resist pressure from the opposite side, conform to the 
movement of the marching flank, and shorten their 
steps according to their distance from it. After wheeling 
around the circle several times the instructor commands, 
"Halt!" 

Wheeling on a movable pivot. Being in march, to 
change direction the instructor commands, "Right (or 
left) wheel, march, forward, march ! " 

The first command is given when the squad is three 
yards from the wheeling point. 

At the command march, the wheel is executed as on a 
fixed pivot, except that the pivot man, instead of turn- 
ing in his place, takes steps of nine inches, and thus gains 
ground forward in describing a small curve so as to clear 
the wheeling-point. 

The radius of the circle described by the pivot man 
increases with the size of the squad, and is equal to 
nearly one half of the front of the squad or subdivision. 

Wheelings on fixed or movable pivot being important 
movements, the instructor requires the pupils succes- 
sively to act as pivots and to conduct the marching 
flank. 

The following simple rule for wheeling with three, 
four, five, or more abreast, will assist the instructor. If 
there are four abreast the pupils take only four steps to 
wheel ninety degrees, eight steps to wheel one hundred 
and eighty degrees, sixteen steps to wheel in a complete 
circle. 

If there are five wheeling they take five steps to wheel 
ninety degrees. Six persons take six steps, and so on. 



MILITARY GYMNASTICS. 207 

There is always one more count than the number of steps 
taken. 

Illustration : In " Fours, right, march, 11 the pupils will 
take only four steps, but will count five. 

Wheelings. The first wheel is generally made when 
the scholars are marching around the room four abreast. 
The points to dwell upon are these : Every scholar in the 
four, with the exception of the marching flank, or the 
outside pupil, turns the face toward the marching flank, 
and dresses to the pivot, which, by the way, is not 
a fixed one. One reason why a company has trouble in 
rounding corners is that the pivots either fix themselves 
or take steps that are much too short, and the radius of 
the circle is not equal to half of the company front. 
This is an important rule, and should be strictly en- 
forced. The wheeling on a fixed pivot with a small com- 
pany front is not difficult, hence let all wheeling be be- 
gun with squads. Increase the size of these until the 
entire class can wheel to the right or the left. But the 
rule must be observed that the eyes are upon the march- 
ing flank and the elbows touch to the pivots. The 
marching flank pupil takes the regulation step, and from 
this point down to the pivot the step is gradually 
shortened. Another important bit of advice to be re- 
membered is : In case those in the center do not shorten 
the step, the line will bulge to the front. Wheeling re- 
quires practice and patience on the part of both instruc- 
tor and pupils. Wheeling on a movable pivot is much 
harder than when the stationary form is used. By fol- 
lowing the directions given in the text, this work can 
be well done. 



208 



METHODS OF TEACHING GYMNASTICS. 



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To form a column of fours from a 
column of twos or files. (Fig. 18.) 
Marching in column of twos the 
teacher commands, "Form fours, left 
(or right) oblique, march!" At the 
command march % the leading two of 
each four take the short step ; the rear 
two oblique to the left until they un- 
cover the leading two, when they re- 
sume the forward march. Having 
formed column of files from column 
of twos or fours, to form column of 
fours the teacher commands, " Form 
fours, left (or right) oblique, march!" 
At the command march, number one 
of the first four moves forward three 
yards and halts ; the other files of the 
first four oblique to the left and place 
themselves successively on the left of 
the leading file ; the other fours suc- 
cessively form as explained for the 
first. 

Column of tivos is formed from col- 
umn of files on the same principles. 
(Fig. 19.) 

In forming column of fours, or twos, 
the teacher commands, "Left (or right) 
oblique," according as the right or 
left is in front. 

It is understood that the scholars 
have counted fours. It may seem 



MILITARY GYMNASTICS. 209 

strange to some that attention is drawn to this seem- 
ingly plain point, but more than one teacher has started 
a class around the room and given the command to 
form twos and fours, when the pupils had not been 
numbered. 

To form twos from a column of files is different from 
forming twos from a line. These terms are 
confusing, and the new teacher is frequently *C"-*. 
bothered by the similarity between them. — ' 

It is enough for one lesson to teach forming ^~?7p 
twos and fours from a file ; but our am- *-*-' © 

bitious' teacher attempts to teach at one les- t^J^ fc 
son much of what is found in the chapter CZS g 

on military training. C^P^ H 

Children are taught by the picture method. Q g 

It is one of the easiest ways to educate a CZl^ ^ 
person. So in teaching the members of a CZ3 o 



ciass 10 iorm twos irom a line or nies, n is j^j^j l. 
well to take the two leading files off to one 'r-±\ **• 
side, where they can be seen by the entire , — .^_ £ 
class, and illustrate the method with them. ' -r-^, 

The salient features are these : The pupils 
must understand in which direction they *...*•-. 
are to go when they form twos on the right. 
Have the class count twos and then face to the right, so 
that they are in single file, then asking number one to 
stand perfectly still, request number two to step out to 
his right when the command is given. Then when the 
next order is given, viz. : "Left by file, march!" have 
number two step back to the file. Try the same plan 
when the class is in motion, but insist upon number one 



210 



METHODS OF TEACHING GYMNASTICS. 



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shortening the step, number two 
obliquing to the right and lengthening 
the step, and explain to the class that 
this is necessary to keep the distance. 
I should illustrate forming fours from 
twos or from a file by the same picture 
method. In forming a column of fours 
from a file, it is just as well to have 
number one mark time as soon as the 
command inarch is given, rather than 
to take three steps forward, as given 
in the old tactics. To form twos from 
a column of fours, command, " Right 
(or left) by twos, march!' 1 ' 1 (See Fig. 
20.) 

To form column of twos from line, 
the teacher commands, "Twos, right 
(or left), march ! " The twos wheel to 
the right on numbers one and three of 
each four as pivots, and to the left on 
numbers two and four. The column 
of twos is formed in line by the com- 
mands, "Twos, left (or right), march ! 
Guide right (or left) " ; " Company, 
halt! Right (or left) dress, front I" 
The line is formed to the left or right, 
according as the right or left is in front. 

To form twos from a line is different 
from forming twos from a file. The 
commands are not the same. I would 
impress it upon the mind of the young 



MILITARY GYMNASTICS. 211 

teacher that the first word in the command when forming 
twos from files must be remembered, viz. : the -word form. 
To form twos from a line, the command is, " Twos, right 
(or left), march ! " The movement is easily learned, and 
not a difficult one to teach. Remember this : that as soon 
as the twos are formed from the line they march ahead, 
and do not stop unless they have the command to do so. 
If we wish to form a line from a column of twos, the 
command will be given, " Twos, right (or left), march I" 
in which case the pivot is on the left or the right, 
according to the command. It is not necessary to take 
time to explain these, only the scholars must remember 
that after the movement has been executed they march 
directly ahead, if no other command is given, and dress, 
according to the rules for marching in a line. If the 
teacher wishes to form fours from a line, the command 
will be, " Fours, right (or left), march /" after which num- 
ber one (or four) is to act as a fixed pivot, and four (or 
one) the marching flank. The rules for wheeling must be 
observed, even when applied to a three or a four. While 
speaking of a four, let me call attention to the com- 
mands, "Fours, right about (or left about), march!" in 
which case the marching flank goes over 180 degrees. 
The pivot is fixed ; the rules for wheeling are to be 
observed. If the instructor wishes the four to march 
completely around in a circle, the command is, "Fours in 
circle, right (or left) wheel, march!" in which case the 
pivot is a fixed one, and the rules for wheeling are 
observed. The four continues to march around in a circle 
until the command halt, or "Forward, march!" or 



212 METHODS OF TEACHING GYMNASTICS. 

To march in column of fours to the front. Being in 
line the teacher commands, "Right (or left), forward, 
fours right (or left), march." (Fig. 21.) At the com- 
mand march, the right four moves straight to the front, 
shortening the first three or four steps ; the other fours 
wheel to the right on a fixed pivot ; the second four, 
when its wheel is two thirds completed, wheels to the 

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Fig. 21.— Right, Forward, Fours Right. 



left on a movable pivot, and follows the first four ; the 
other fours, having wheeled to the right, move forward 
and wheel to the left on a movable pivot on the same 
ground as the second. 

To march in a column of fours to the front, the 
scholars are in a line ; the command is found in the 
description. At the command march, the first four 
must shorten the first few steps. Teachers do not em- 



MILITARY GYMNASTICS. 213 

phasize this, consequently there is an irregular space 
between the first and the second four. The second four 
in the line has the hardest work to do, because part of 
its work is on a fixed and part on a movable pivot. 
It is well, therefore, for the teacher to explain carefully 
to the second four just what they are to do. The result 
will be that, when the column of fours is formed and 
marched to the front, the lines are regular and the spaces 
even. The rules for turning a corner in a column of 
fours have been given. Dwell upon the fact that the 
pivots are movable, that the elbows touch the pivot, and 
the eyes are turned toward the marching flank until the 
wheel is made, when the eyes are again turned to the 
front. 

There is one command that is somewhat irregular, but 
nevertheless the movement is of so much value that I 
use it frequently. It is to form fours or threes or sixes 
by a flank movement. The command is, " First four by 
the right flank, march ! " At the command march, the 
first four face to the right and march in the new direc- 
tion, shortening the steps. The rest of the file will march 
to the same point, and each four will, in turn, execute 
the right flank movement and march in the new direc- 
tion. By this plan the scholars can take their numbers 
and form their fours in one movement. The teacher 
must emphasize the fact that each number one must 
wait for two, three, and four before marching in the new 
direction, as otherwise the four form an irregular line. 

In closing the chapter upon military drill, I wish to 
state that too much importance cannot be attached to 
this part of our physical training. The scholar who has 



214 METHODS OF TEACHING GYMNASTICS. 

been well drilled in this respect acquires control over the 
body. It is said that we can pick out a West Pointer at 
a glance. It is true that we associate with the officer in 
the army the erect carriage, the firm step, and the proud 
bearing, which military drill will give. The men who 
compose the army are, to a certain extent, machines. 
Their work becomes automatic, and they obey com- 
mands without thinking. They are to use their best 
energies in fighting. While this, of course, does not 
apply to the scholars in our schools, nevertheless that 
boy or girl who has received some military training 
will exhibit its good effects in other ways. It is true 
that the head is erect, the chest in a better position, the 
movements of the body are decided and regular, and the 
child is more apt to show the results of the discipline in 
better mental work than one who has not been so 
trained. 

I am aware that in many of our schools the military 
training is a farce. The fault is not entirely that of the 
teacher, but of the principal of the school, who does not 
wish, or who is not in a position to enforce, strict 
obedience. In this part of our training the body is 
always ready for immediate action. No time is lost. 
The pupil does not stand with the weight back upon the 
heels, but is well poised, and starts forward upon the 
command, or steps in any one of the given directions. 

I have taken some time to speak of what may seem to 
be too simple details, but my experience with a large 
number of teachers has shown me that they do not 
understand the rudiments of this work, and I would 
strongly urge that the man or woman who teaches 



MILITARY GYMNASTICS. 215 

military drill try the movements and practice them 
before attempting to teach them to a class of boys or 
girls. 

At what age should we teach military drill in our 
schools ? As soon as we begin to teach gymnastics. 



CHAPTER XVII. 

use of light apparatus. 

Dumb Bells. 

It is perhaps not necessary to dwell at length upon 
the comparative value of the dumb bells, Indian clubs, 
and wands. The three pieces of apparatus should be 
used. There is; perhaps, a greater variety of movement 
to be found with the wands and the bells than with the 
clubs, when we take into consideration the movements 
of the body combined with those of the arms. The 
wands and Indian clubs will be discussed under special 
headings.. 

Regarding the bells, experience teaches us that two 
weights are sufficient, viz.: the one-pound wooden dumb 
bell, for pupils over ten years of age — this to include the 
young men in the gymnasium ; for pupils under ten the 
half-pound bell will answer. The best bell to use is one 
with a large handle. The old style fancy dumb bell, 
with slender, curved handles, is not strong enough for 
gymnasium use. Bells should be made of hard wood, 
with an oil finish. The teacher should insist upon 
securing those which are not shellaced. With proper 
use, they ought to last a number of years. 

The various manufacturers have placed on the market 
racks of different kinds for holding the bells. These 

216 



USE OF LIGHT APPARATUS. 217 

racks should be placed in different parts of the room. 
Do not have the bells placed together in a certain portion 
of the gymnasium, because, if the scholars are allowed 
to break ranks to secure them, there will be rushing and 
crowding. It is better to scatter them on three or four 
sides of the room, and to place between the pairs of bells 
a pair of Indian clubs. 

The question has been asked, How soon can we begin 
to use the dumb bells in the gymnasium ? They can be 
given to the members of the smaller class, although it is 
better to give the children and pupils in the kinder- 
garten department exercises included under the term 
free gymnastics. Certainly it is not advisable to give 
them the bells until after Christmas, if the school opens 
in September. This is also true of the wands. We do 
not give the Indian clubs to the children until they 
have been in the gymnasium for one, two, or more years. 

The bells may be taken from the racks in several ways. 
The plan adopted by some teachers is to have the class 
march around the room, each pupil taking from the 
racks a pair of bells as he marches by. This is a good 
way if the class has been drilled in military work. 

A short lesson upon this subject may assist the teacher. 
Let us imagine that the class is to take the bells for the 
first time. The teacher will call attention to this piece 
of apparatus ; will perhaps take her own bells from the 
rack connected with the platform and show them to 
the children. She should then make the statements, 
which form part of the discipline of the class, i. e., that 
the pupils will be allowed to take the apparatus if they 
show by their actions that they are old enough. They 



218 METHODS OF TEACHING GYMNASTICS. 

must under no conditions strike the bells together until 
they have permission to do so, while the scholar who 
drops his bell on the floor shows that he is not strong 
enough or is not well enough drilled to hold it in his 
hands. 

The great difficulty will be the " clicking " of the bells, 
which almost immediately follows the first trial. It is 
the fault of the teacher if it happens. The instructor 
should anticipate these difficulties, warn the class, and 
enforce her orders. 

It now remains to be seen whether the teacher has 
the courage of her convictions, and will keep her word 
with the class. She will give the pupils in the first row 
permission to step across to the racks, take their bells, 
and return to places. When they have come back to 
position the bells should be placed on the hips. The 
scholars will then be compelled to remain standing still 
for a very short time, while the pupils in the other rows 
get their supply and come back to position. Very likely 
it will happen that, while the scholars in the third or 
fourth row are getting their bells, some one in the first 
row will disobey the order and strike the bells together, 
either in front or back of the body. The teacher must 
at once ascertain the offender, and request him to 
replace immediately his bells in the rack. The effect 
upon the rest of the class will be a good one. They know 
then that the teacher means what she says. It is doubt- 
ful if there need be a repetition of this punishment in 
the class, if the teacher acts without delay in the case of 
the first offense. 

After all members of the class have supplied them- 



USE OF LIGHT APPARATUS. 219 

selves with bells, it may be well for the teacher to allow 
the scholars to examine them, and to strike them to- 
gether if necessary. It is true that this clicking will 
make a loud noise, but no harm will result. The curi- 
osity of the child will have been satisfied, and he is less 
likely to violate rules in the future. I have very often 
tried this plan, and found that it works well. 

If the first wish of the children is to make a noise 
with the bells, give them a lesson in which they can 
make all the noise they wish, such as striking the bells 
in front of the body or above the head, in unison. At 
the close of the lesson the teacher should see that the 
bells are put back in the same places from which they 
were taken. If there are two sizes used in the class, 
the necessity for this will be evident. Otherwise the 
large bells will be mixed up with the smaller ones, and 
vice versa. As soon as the teacher has impressed it 
thoroughly upon the class that they are not to rap their 
dumb bells, and that dropping them is out of the ques- 
tion, she can proceed to the next step, which is to drill 
the class in taking the bells, coming back to position, 
letting the arms hang at the side and not twisting the 
arms. I should strougly urge a teacher to be careful 
about making rules that she is not in a position to 
enforce. It is not wroug for a child to twist the arm 
when the bell is held in the hand, nevertheless, as a part 
of its training, he should be taught to hold the arms at 
the side. It would be poor teaching to request a class of 
children to hold the bells for a long time without taking 
some exercise. In such a case the scholars may be ex- 
cused if they violate rules. It is the idle class that gets 



220 METHODS OF TEACHING GYMNASTICS. 

into trouble. Keep the class busy during the entire 
period allotted for the lesson in gymnastics. 

Another difficulty that the teacher will have to meet 
is the changing of the bells. A scholar secures one pair 
and goes to his place ; they do not suit him and he starts 
back to make a change. Do not allow this. Then there 
is, in the class, a very particular scholar, who will try to 
find two bells of exactly the same color and shape. He 
will pick out one bell, and start to run up and down the 
room to find another that is exactly like it. This, of 
course, must not be tolerated. 

What shall we give at the first lesson? If the children 
have been well drilled in taking, holding, and replacing 
the bells, much has been accomplished, and this is 
enough for the first lesson. For the interesting part of 
the drill the scholars may be permitted to go through 
some of the striking motions mentioned above. The 
running in place can be given at the same time, allowing 
them to strike the bells, first the thumb ends and then 
the little finger ends, the bells being held chest high to 
the front, the arms bent. The simplest motions must be 
given at the beginning. As we teach the alphabet, or 
the sounds of the letters, to the child beginning to read, 
so we should give the simple attitudes, positions, or ex- 
ercises with the dumb bells. 

The movements should be given in the simplest time. 
To illustrate : One teacher, in giving a class of Children 
a drill with the dumb bells, requested them to take the 
alternate movements. As the children had never heard 
the word "alternate" before, they did not know what 
she meant, and although she showed the exercise, 



USE OF LIGHT APPARATUS. 221 

they did not do the movements at all well. It is better 
to give movements with one arm, or possibly with two ; 
but do not make the exercise complex or compound at 
the start. The thrusting and swinging movements with 
the arms are easily taught and learned. The circling 
motion with the arm is harder. (The reader is referred 
to "Light Gymnastics" for the alphabet with the dumb 
bells.) 

Imitation work is always good for children and adults. 
By this it is meant that the teacher is to take an exer- 
cise without describing it, slowly at first, but afterwards 
the movements can be given rapidly. This always 
arouses a great deal of interest and merriment on the 
part of the children. The child sees the picture, and is 
compelled to imitate it as quickly as possible. This, of 
course, will require attention, observation, and muscular 
or nerve control on the part of the little ones. 

Professor Morrill, of the State Normal School at New 
Haven, says that he believes the muscle sense in a child 
can be developed, and that it is educated quicker if the 
child is allowed to take the movement in order that he 
may feel the exercise. The person who draws himself 
up and turns over on the horizontal bar experiences a 
certain feeling that he will always associate with that 
particular exercise. On the other hand, the one who 
cannot do this will never have experienced that peculiar 
sensation which Professor Morrill calls the "muscle 
sense." So with a child : the one who has taken a cer- 
tain exercise accurately will experience the sensation 
which follows a movement well executed, and this will 
assist him in the future in doing accurate work. 



222 METHODS OF TEACHING GYMNASTICS. 

The picture method of teaching an exercise has been 
mentioned elsewhere in this book. It is valuable, but 
should not be overdone. The teacher should explain an 
exercise without showing it, and request the scholars to 
take it. This will require thought and will power on the 
part of the child. It would not be wise to give work of 
this character to a class of children who had been taking 
an examination or were wearied with mental effort. 

When pupils have been drilled in marching and can 
keep step, and the work is to a certain extent automatic, 
the teacher might frequently allow them to march for 
the dumb bells and come back to places. It will require, 
however, an alert disciplinarian to keep order if this is 
done. Pupils will often strike the bells against the sides 
of the room or against the bells of their neighbor, and 
do it on the side not seen by the teacher ; but this can be 
stopped at once if, as has been said, the teacher is alert 
and wide awake. The first offense must be treated with- 
out delay. 

When a drill is taken, if the work has not been well 
done, repeat it. This applies to any exercise. Do not 
let a class think that you are satisfied with a movement 
that is but half done. When marching for the bells or 
taking any position, so far as it is possible, the teacher 
should insist upon accurate work, and while individual 
effort cannot be noticed so well, the glaring mistakes can 
be corrected while the drill is progressing. 

The combinations with the dumb bells are many. The 
various drills and exercises are numerous, attractive, and 
valuable. Apart from these special drills, it is well 
frequently to give the class specific work for the arms 



USE OF LIGHT APPARATUS. 223 

(see "Hints on Teaching Boys"), making that the sub- 
ject of the lesson ; on another day, special work for 
widening and deepening the chest. That is the lesson 
which is to be remembered. The scholar should be 
taught something new every day, and if a series of 
movements is given that will develop the muscles on the 
front and back of the forearm, it should be so taught 
that it is impressed upon his mind. Do not expect that 
everything given will be remembered. 

Such exercises as the Anvil Chorus, or the Pizzicati, 
or the Dumb Bell Quadrille have been criticised, on the 
ground that they are showy and pretty. It is true that 
they are of the aesthetic kind, but they require muscular 
effort, self-control, and grace of movement, and requir- 
ing these, they produce them. 

Some of our teachers make a mistake in allowing too 
long an interval between exercises of the same kind. 
For example, an instructor will begin the Anvil Chorus, 
teach the first third one week, and not take up the 
second part until two weeks later. It may extend over 
from one to two months, so that the child loses some of 
his interest in this special drill. The exercise mentioned 
is only a sample. Do not be in a hurry when teaching 
gymnastics. If, perchance, the teacher is acquainted 
with the drill which is now somewhat passe, the Anvil 
Chorus, I would suggest that she divide this combina- 
tion of exercises into three parts, the first of which in- 
cludes the quiet exercises, arm and leg movements, the 
second, the striking movements with the bells, while 
the third comprises one or two striking and a number of 
silent movements, also the finish of the drill. There is 



224 METHODS OF TEACHING GYMNASTICS. 

in the first part something noticeable that will make this 
portion of the drill easily remembered, i. e., that every 
movement is repeated, and all are taken on both the 
right and the left sides. The teacher who will analyze 
the arrangement of a drill will find that there are many 
little things that she can remember that will be of 
great assistance in teaching the exercise. Often, when 
giving instruction of this character, the teacher will, for 
the time being, forget what is coming next. This for- 
getfulness produces temporary embarrassment, which 
will be noticed by the scholars and the accompanist and 
will affect the teaching. One who is placed in this posi- 
tion can go back and repeat some exercise or some 
portion of the drill, in order to gain time to collect her 
scattered thoughts. 

A good combination of movements with the dumb 
bells is marking time in place, combined with simple 
arm flexions, extensions, arm swingings, or with strik- 
ing motions. They are, however, rather harder to teach 
than the marching movements taken with the same 
exercises. At first all such combinations should be 
simple. Do not teach too many at one lesson ; rather 
give the pupils a drill in the few than the many. When 
marching around the room, if both sexes are represented 
in the class, we have frequently had the girls march in 
one direction and take the outside track, and the boys 
march in another direction, taking the inside track. 
The reason for this is that the girls, as a rule, behave 
better than the boys. If the latter were allowed to take 
the outside course and were given the thrusting move- 
ments with the bells, they would take great delight in 



USE OF LIGHT APPARATUS. 225 

striking the walls or the apparatus. It is well to avoid 
thrusting the arms out when marching. They can be 
thrust up or down without requiring too much space. 
The circling motions can be given to slow march time. 

In Watson's "Calisthenics" will be found a number 
of very good double drills, but they should not be given 
unless the discipline is the very best. Whenever two 
scholars come together they try to have a good time. 

There are a number of games that can be used with 
the bells, that we used to give to our classes on Friday, 
such as passing the dumb bells, which is something like 
passing bean bags, telegraphing with the bells, or the 
relay race. Telegraphing is done in this fashion : The 
scholars stand side by side, almost at arm's length, facing 
the center of the room, with a dumb bell in each hand. 
The teacher stands at the head of the line and strikes 
the bell of the first pupil, who in turn strikes the bell of 
the second pupil, and thus the sound is carried down the 
class, each striking the bell upon the right or the left, the 
last in the line dropping his bell upon the floor as soon 
as the " telegram " reaches him. The game is rather an 
exciting one, and interesting. The relay race is this : 
Ten boys are matched against ten girls. The first boy 
walks around the room as rapidly as he can, carrying a 
dumb bell. In order that he may not cut the corners, a 
boy is stationed at each around whom he will have to 
walk. When he reaches the starting point he stops 
walking, passes the bell to the second one in the class, 
who, in turn, walks around and hands it to the third. 
Thus, in a very short time the ten boys have walked 
around the room. The time has been recorded by 



226 METHODS OF TEACHING GYMNASTICS. 

the teacher, who will in the same way test the girls.* 
The Wands. 

There are many rules common to the wands, bells, and 
clubs. It is not necessary to repeat them if they have 
been given under any one of the special headings. The 
physical director who uses these light appliances should 
read the articles as they are given in this book. In 
discipline, for example, the rule against dropping a bell 
applies to the wand. The teacher must be careful that 
the pupils do not get the start in dropping wands. It 
makes a great deal of noise, and if one starts others will 
follow. It will be a source of pleasure to the class, and 
annoyance to the teacher. 

Children should be allowed to use the wands as soon 
as they are old enough to exercise with the bells. The 
variety of work is great. The wand, if it is made of a 
proper length and diameter, can be used as a gun, in 
which case the manual of arms and bayonet drill will be 
found valuable and interesting. The teacher, however, 
must avoid the error of supposing that the drill is the end 
of the exercise, and not the means to an end. The small 
dowels that can be purchased at many of the hardware 
stores can be used as well as the more expensive wand. 
The author has purchased these at the rate of one cent 
each. They can be sandpapered, and will serve very 
well for the other uses to which the wand can be put, 
viz.: the broadsword drill for public schools, the single 
stick, and double and compound work. 

Arrange the wands in somewhat the manner recom- 

* For other games see Anderson's " Chautauqua Primer of Gym- 
nastics." 



USE OF LIGHT APPARATUS. 227 

mended for the dumb bells, but place them in boxes in 
different parts of the room. Racks are found in some of 
the gymnasia, but are not so good as the boxes, on ac- 
count of the time required to take and replace wands. 

How to take the wands is a matter worth considering. 
The teacher should explain the method of holding the 
stick. Many will grasp the wand incorrectly, as seen in 
the illustration. (Fig. 22.) To make this plainer to the 
children, tell them to hold the wand as they would hold 
a pen, or as in Fig. 23, in which case it rests in the notch 
made by the thumb and first finger. This, of course, is 
a small point, but only attention to detail will bring 
good results. The question has come up a number of 
times whether a child should hold the wand at carry 
arms, or down. (Fig. 24.) For many reasons, the 
former method is preferable, although more difficult to 
teach. 

The teacher should give wands to the scholars after 
they have been well grounded in the fundamental prin- 
ciples of free gymnastics. She should warn them about 
disobeying the few rules that are made, and call their 
attention to dropping the wand or moving it away from 
the body. If the scholars are anxious to take the wands 
the teacher should take advantage of their desire, but 
the business part of the drill comes when the few rules 
are made. It is better for the teacher to appoint moni- 
tors, the first or last in each row, or any special scholar 
in whom she has confidence, to step to one box, select a 
sufficient number of wands for those in the file, then 
take a standing position at the head of the row. When 
all the monitors are so placed, the teacher gives the 



228 METHODS OF TEACHING GYMNASTICS. 

command for the distribution, when the monitors step 
down and hand a wand to each pupil. 

We must make some allowance for the boy or girl who 
means to do well, but occasionally forgets. A child, for 
example, unwittingly violates a rule, and is requested 
to return the wand to the box. It is not wise to be too 
severe in a case of this kind. If the boy admits that he 
has made a mistake and is willing to do better in the 
future, allow him again to take the wand. 

The objection to marching for the wands is the same 
as that to marching for bells. It should not be done un- 
til the class understands well the simple movements 
in military gymnastics. They are then to march in 
single file past the box, each pupil selecting a wand and 
bringing it to carry arms. They then proceed to their 
footmarks or positions on the floor. 

The teacher should give the class a drill in taking and 
replacing the wands. Do not be too anxious to begin 
the exercise. If the chief part of the first lesson is 
given to the method of securing apparatus, the children 
will be apt to remember and more ready to obey the next 
time. If, on the other hand, the teacher is careless and 
is too anxious to proceed with the drill, here, as in other 
exercises, she must pay the penalty later on, and the 
blame for confusion, disorder, and poor work rests on 
her, and not on the scholars. 

The simple alphabet of movements with the wand 
would include these terms : wand down, front, up, out 
to the right or left, right arm or left arm front or up, the 
right and left hand salutes, wand on the chest, wand 
front and twisted. These, of course, can be taken with 











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USE OF LIGHT APPARATUS. 229 

the stepping, foot placing, charging, and lunging mo- 
tions. The combination of movements is almost count- 
less. In addition to the simple and compound move- 
ments, the teacher can give the class instruction in the 
manual of arms, under which heading would come 
present, port/ charge, order, firing, the kneeling move- 
ments, reverse arms, etc. (See "Light Gymnastics.") 
Special drills can be given for the development of 
different parts of the body, viz.: the arms, shoulders, 
front, back, and sides of the waist. Running exercises 
have been given, but the wand interferes with the action 
of the arms. 

Too much value should not be placed upon the series 
with the wands. It is better that the drill should be 
given with some purpose in view, rather than an aimless 
line of exercises that are only for exhibition. The 
teacher at each lesson should give motions that will tend 
to draw the shoulders back to place, to widen and 
deepen the chest, to develop the muscles of the waist 
and back. Simple attitudes have been given, and are 
valuable because they require bodily control. The line 
work is good at times, but should not be given unless 
the scholars are well disciplined. As with the poles, 
pupils have an opportunity to play, and it is not easy to 
pick out the culprit. There are so many good drills that 
it is not necessary to take the space here for a description 
of any of them. 

Indian Clubs. 

The work with the Indian clubs is always interesting. 
It is popular and there is a universal call for it. It 
is not easy for one to learn all that can be given in 



230 METHODS OF TEACHING GYMNASTICS. 

club swinging. While the simple movements that are 
taught at the first lessons may be mastered in a few 
w T eeks, the more difficult combinations, including the 
snakes and reverse snakes, will require long-continued 
practice. The value of club swinging has frequently- 
been questioned, and there is no doubt that some of the 
movements tend to cramp the chest and to flatten its 
walls. On the other hand, the long circles to the right 
and left elevate the shoulders, produce vacuums in the 
apices of the lungs, so that for some forms of threatened 
lung trouble they are really beneficial. Another argu- 
ment against club swinging is that only the arms and 
the trunk of the body are used. There would be some 
weight to this statement if it were true, but many of the 
exercises that are given require arm work combined with 
leg action. Dr. Seaver gave a club drill for a number of 
years which was about the same to Yale that the Hitch- 
cock dumb bell drill was to Amherst. He succeeded in 
deriving as much benefit from the club movements as 
many teachers would from free gymnastics and with the 
bells. .The arm swinging movements were combined 
with charging, lunging, and swaying exercises. In the 
German gymnastics one will see a combination of the 
long circles with stepping, facing, and turning move- 
ments. It is not wise for the teacher to confine her 
drills to circling motions, which too often necessitate 
standing still. 

Frequently children are allowed to take but one club, 
in which case they hold it down, as they would a wand, 
when they are given the flexing movements of the arms, 
swinging the club front and up, combining these move- 



USE OF LIGHT APPARATUS. 231 

ments with stepping, charging, and swaying exercises. 

The clubs should not be given to the children until 
they have been well grounded in the principles of free 
gymnastics and have used the wands and the bells. 
There is more danger when a class is beginning club 
swinging than when using any other piece of apparatus. 
The careless child will swing the club around the head 
and may strike the one standing upon the right or the 
left or immediately back of him. If the club slips and 
strikes some one the result may be serious. Again, 
the movements not well taught will result in injury to 
the person's own body. The lower front circle has been 
given in such a way that the child would strike his own 
face with the end of the club. Do not give two clubs to 
pupils at the first lesson. 

A drill should be given in the method of taking and 
replacing clubs. The first time they are used the pupils 
in one line are allowed to break ranks, step to the racks, 
each scholar take one club, and come back to position. 
A stated time is allowed for the selection of apparatus, 
and if all the scholars are not back within this limit, 
then is the time for questioning. The children, after 
taking the apparatus, should stand strictly in place, the 
club in the right hand and at the side. Scholars who 
disobey should be punished immediately. A great 
penalty is replacing the club in the rack and doing only 
the arm work. At the close of the lesson the pupils, one 
row at a time, replace the clubs and return to footmarks. 
The teacher must look out for these difficulties : drop- 
ping the clubs, or letting them slip from the hand while 
making the circles. The children under no conditions 



232 METHODS QF TEACHING GYMNASTICS. 

should be allowed to make the circles while the other 
members of the class are taking or replacing their clubs. 

A few words about the weight. Clubs should not 
weigh more than two pounds for the oldest and strongest 
classes. At Yale University the two-pound clubs are 
popular, the men preferring them to the "three- 
pounders." For children, three-quarter and half-pound 
clubs are suitable. There are numerous models made, 
but the one shown in the illustrations is recommended, 
on account of its shape, size, and what is called "the 
balance." 

If a teacher thinks it is better to have the scholars 
march from files and take the clubs, and the classes are 
mixed, the girls should march first. They will obey 
rules better than boys, and do not swing their clubs back 
and forth when they have returned to their footmarks. 

Frequently it happens that after a class has been 
placed upon the floor and is at work with clubs, schol- 
ars will enter the room and start at once for the foot- 
marks. This is dangerous. The class should be brought 
to an immediate halt, or the scholar should be re- 
quested to come to the platform. The latter is prefer- 
able. The class should be drilled in halting instantly. 
It may be that one member of a class will drop the 
club, and if it goes rolling along the floor, he will, 
regardless of the danger, run after it, and very likely be 
struck by another pupil. If a club is dropped, the com- 
mand halt should be given at once, and if the scholars 
are well drilled they will obey the command. It is bet- 
ter, however, to teach prevention than to cure, and 
the individual should be cautioned against attempting to 



USE OF LIGHT APPARATUS. 233 

secure the club. In some cases the hand will become 
moist from perspiration, and the club will easily slip. 
Again, if the fingers are fatigued, the club may drop. 
The scholar who is tired should not continue the exer- 
cise. Permission should be given him to stand at place 
rest with the club at the side. 

In club swinging every movement and position 
should be analyzed. Only two directions are used in 
making the long circles, namely, to the right and the 
left, and front and rear. We do not, as a rule, swing 
the clubs in the oblique directions when making the 
complete or the long circles. It is well for the teacher 
at the start to indicate by a movement of the hand or 
head in which direction the club is to go. 

In answer to the question, "How far apart should 
scholars stand when swinging two clubs?" they can 
stand six feet and take all double and follow work to 
the sides or to the front and rear, but reel work, where 
both arms swing out in different directions, should not 
be given. When pupils stand seven or more feet apart 
all circles can be taken. 

There are only two kinds of circles in club swinging : 
first, the long one, in which the shoulder is near the cen- 
ter of the circle ; second, the short one, or a wrist circle. 
The short circles are made at the shoulder, above the 
head, at arm's length in any direction, hip high in 
front, and back of the body — the latter being considered 
the hardest circles. A combination of any two circles 
is called a complete circle. For example, the child 
makes what is termed a heart-shaped circle to the right; 
he then makes the short circle at the shoulder. Making 



234 METHODS OF TEACHING GYMNASTICS. 

these two without a stop is a complete exercise. In the 
same way the complete lower front, the complete lower 
back, and the complete overhead circles are made. 

A motion is made with two clubs to the right or left. 
This is called a double exercise. The circles are made to 
the right or the left with one club leading and the other 
club following. This is termed & follow circle, One club 
goes to the right and makes a long circle, while the other 
makes a short circle to the left. This would be called 
reel time. 

The teacher is cautioned about using different terms 
for the same exercise. In our American system of gym- 
nastics we have no nomenclature. One teacher may use 
her own terms ; another teacher will use entirely differ- 
ent words for the same command. The instructor who 
will analyze every exercise will find that she can teach 
it better. The heart-shaped circle, for example, should 
be carefully dissected. It consists in starting the club 
from the fundamental position, raising the hand a little 
higher than the head, swinging out to the right, making 
almost a complete circle, and bringing it back to posi- 
tion. The pupil who wears tight clothing will make 
what is called a forearm circle, the elbow being near the 
center, rather than the shoulder. 

The pass is a term frequently used. It means that the 
club is passed from the right to the left hand. It is used 
only when the pupils are exercising with one club. 

If too much time has been given to the short or the 
complete shoulder circles, the shoulder should be rested, 
and the pendulum movements given. If it happens 
that the child is fatigued, stop the arm work for the 



USE OF LIGHT APPARATUS. 235 

time, and give the class a drill for the legs, such as the 
stepping or swaying motions, raising on the toes, or flex- 
ing the legs. A great mistake made by teachers is giv- 
ing too much at one lesson. 

Analysis of the drop circle. This consists of two 
movements — the double shoulder circles, and the double 
pendulum. Do not teach this until the class has been 
thoroughly drilled in each part. The single pendulum 
consists in swinging the club from right to left, shoulder 
high, as seen in the illustration. (Fig. 25.) Beginners 
will swing the clubs above the head. Unless the in- 
structor emphasizes the necessity of stopping the clubs 
at the height of the shoulder she will not obtain good 
results. If, on the other hand, she will take a few 
seconds to say that the scholars should stop the clubs 
at a certain height and then permit them to swing 
the clubs to that position and stop them, she will add 
emphasis to her teaching. 

Analysis of the reel. This consists of the complete 
shoulder circles out, the right hand going to the right 
and the left hand to the left. A method of teaching the 
exercise is this : Permit the scholars to make the heart- 
shaped circle with the left hand, the shoulder circle with 
the right hand, out. Let them take it a sufficient num- 
ber of times to make it almost automatic. Next reverse 
this, and let them make the short circle with the left 
hand and the long circle with the right, and so continue 
until the circles are easily made with either arm. At 
the finish there is a short pause. Two counts are given 
for the motion. Later on they can pass to the " reel," 
which is a continuous movement. 



236 METHODS OF TEACHING GYMNASTICS. 

Analysis of the " snake." First teach pupils how to 
grasp the club. (Fig. 26.) The snake is made froin a 
swinging start, either at the end of a short or long circle. 
The lower start is preferable, i. e., with the club hanging 
at the side, in which case the arm is carried across the 
body and held as seen in the illustration. (Fig. 27.) From 
this position it is thrown around to the right and rests 
upon the top of the arm. The points to consider are 
these : the club is parallel to the floor ; it is grasped by 
the second, third, and little ringers ; the thumb is under- 
neath, and the first finger upon the knob of the club. 
There are three parts to this movement, only one of which 
is to be taught at a lesson, viz.: the fundamental starting 
position, and the first circle, which is described thus : 

The free end of the club is carried around under the 
chin, an important point to remember, because it in- 
sures a right start. At the end of the first third of the 
circle the club is held in this awkward position, the 
elbow well raised, the club in front of the chest and par- 
allel to the floor. It continues around until the first 
circle is finished, at which time the club is under the 
arm, and is held as seen in Fig. 28. 

The second is the hardest of the three. It is made by 
turning the back of the hand in, so that we have 
the position shown in Fig. 28. The free end of the club 
passes under the axilla, around in front of the chest,- 
the hand going back, almost touching the side of the 
body, until the club, still parallel to the floor, rests on 
top of the forearm, the thumb being up, and the back of 
the hand to the front. This finishes the second circle. 
(See Fig. 29.) 



USE OF LIGHT APPARATUS. 237 

The third consists of a quick swiog or (for lack of a 
better word) "sling," the club being thrown out and 
around and caught on the fleshy part of the arm in the 
starting position. (Fig. 27.) These three circles con- 
stitute the horizontal snake. If the motion is taken 
rapidly it can be made so that the hand does not go 
back, even with the side of the body. 

Now take the swing out from the end of the second 
circle, to some other short or long circle. The second 
turn is finished with the club as seen in Fig. 29. To 
swing out for the lower front the hand is raised over 
the shoulders, the club pendant, from which position 
the club is again swung up, or we fling it up, which 
leaves us in position to make a lower back or lower 
front. Only two of the three snake circles are made, 
then the club is thrown out for some combination at the 
end of the second. The hard parts are the catch as the 
club is thrown into position and the first and second 
circles. 

The difference between a horizontal and a perpendicu- 
lar snake is that in the first the club is parallel to the 
floor, and in the second it is in a perpendicular position ; 
of the two, the perpendicular snake is the harder. 

There is what is called the half snake— a perpendicular 
movement. The club may swing from below or from 
the fundamental starting position out, make a long- 
circle, and swing into the second of the movements 
which make the snake, the arm being shaped a little 
like a swan's neck (Fig. 30 ), from which position the 
circle is finished. 

The reverse snake may be learned by making one 



238 METHODS OF TEACHING GYMNASTICS. 

regular snake and then going back over the same ground. 
Better still, one part must be made at a time, and then 
the movement reversed.* 

Fencing. 

This exercise is reserved for advanced pupils. The 
drill that is set aside for scholars is called the school 
form of broadsword exercises. It is neither wise nor 
safe to allow the pupils in classes where masks are 
not worn to practice what may be termed the French 
or Italian system of foil fencing, in which the child 
thrusts or pokes his sword at another. In broadsword, 
all of the work consists of giving light blows, which 
may be easily and safely warded. 

The implements used are wands or dowels. They are 
three feet in length and three quarters of an inch in 
diameter. They will break easily, but it does not cost 
much to replace them. The teacher will find that the 
young men take delight in striking hard blows, the 
result of which is the destruction of the dowel or fencing 
stick. If these strong young men are requested to pay 
for the swords they break, the loss will be reduced to a 
minimum. 

A light wooden sword, with detachable handle, cost- 
ing from fifteen to twenty-five cents, can be purchased 
from the firms which make a specialty of manufactur- 
ing gymnastic apparatus. This is more popular than 
the dowel, because it is furnished with handle and guard 
and it looks like a sword. 

The swords may be kept in racks ; the dowels, which 

* Address Dr. Luther Gulick, Springfield, Mass., for illustrated 
article on the snake. 



USE OF LIGHT APPARATUS. 239 

serve the double purpose of swords and wands, should 
be kept in the boxes. If the scholars are old enough to 
take the fencing drill, they are sufficiently advanced to 
march for the swords. 

The preliminary movements in fencing should be given 
before the scholar is allowed to take the sword. These 
include the positions of the feet, arms, and body, and the 
passing to what is called the position of "on guard." 
The method of teaching is this : 

The pupils assume the fundamental standing position, 
which see. The command is given, "Scholars, left 
oblique (or half face to the left), face ! " Next place the 
feet at right angles, in which case the right foot points 
directly to the front, the left foot to the left. It will re- 
quire more time to place the feet properly than it does to 
turn the body 45°. Place the hands on the hips, where 
they are out of the way, and give the class a drill in 
bending the knees, as seen in the illustration. (Fig. 31.) 
This exercise should be repeated a number of times. 
Notice that the feet are on the floor, the heels are not 
raised, the eyes and face are to the front. After bending 
the knees, teach advancing the right foot two foot lengths 
straight to the front. The teacher must insist upon the 
scholar advancing the foot directly to the front, and not 
in an oblique direction. If after executing the half face 
to the left the foot rests upon one board or line running 
to the front, it should rest upon the same board or line 
when it is advanced two foot lengths to the front. The 
right arm may then be advanced directly to the front, 
then it can be bent until the elbow is about the height of 
the chest, the distance between the elbow and the chest 



240 METHODS OF TEACHING GYMNASTICS. 

being seven or eight inches. Scholars who tire easily 
will allow the elbow to rest against the side of the waist. 
This is wrong. 

It will require one or two lessons to perfect the schol- 
ars in these preliminary light movements, but they 
should be thoroughly mastered before the sword is used. 

After they are able to place the feet in a proper posi- 
tion and understand how the arms are held, permit them 
to take the sword, and in the seven counts which are de- 
scribed in "Light Gymnastics," page 178, pass to the 
position of "on guard." The difficult part to teach is 
the position of the sword, or right arm. The teacher 
should carefully analyze every position and every 
part of the attitude, before attempting to teach. She 
should also have rehearsed all before the mirror, work- 
ing on her left side. 

The striking movements are made in two ways : first, 
by swaying the body forward and extending the arm ; 
second, by advancing the foot one foot length to the 
front, making what is called the three-quarter lunge. 
Scholars strike at their opponent's sword, instead 
of aiming at these parts of the body, the top of the 
head, the cheeks, the round of the shoulders, and the 
middle of the thighs. A mistake often made is this : 
Pupils do not advance the right foot far enough, or sway 
the body sufficiently, to touch their opponent. This is 
more apt to be the case when giving the leg blows. 
Still another mistake is the failure to return to the posi- 
tion of "on guard " after a blow has been struck. This 
should be corrected, otherwise scholars will always be 
careless about returning to the correct position, and it 



USE OF IilGHT APPARATUS. 241 

will be seen that either the arms are curved too much or 
the point of the sword is above the top of the head. 

Fencing will tire out the right arm. It is well, there- 
fore, to drill the scholars on the left side. 

Many of the young ladies in our schools have been 
averse to taking the correct position with the feet. They 
prefer to stand with the knees perfectly straight. A 
little patience on the part of the teacher and this mistake 
will be remedied. 



CHAPTER XVIII. 

MANNERISMS. 

One who has made a study of teachers, especially 
beginners, will have noticed the many useless motions 
made by her during a lesson— the swinging of the arms, 
the twitching of the ringers, the clutching at the dress, 
the changing of the position of the body. She gives a 
command, then takes a short step ; gives another com- 
mand, then steps backward; explains an exercise and 
steps to the right or the left — in short, moves from place 
to place, in an aimless way, every time she makes an ex- 
planation. Another teacher, while speaking to the 
class, will sway from one side to another ; that one will 
arrange some portion of her dress ; this one will bring 
the hand to the face or fix the collar. They too fre- 
quently clasp their hands in front of them, or rest the 
elbows on the hips if they are women, or clasp the hands 
back of them if they are men. The hands too often rest 
upon the hips. One man used to twirl his moustache 
when he gave new commands or was at all annoyed or 
embarrassed. Another would scratch his head every 
time he gave a certain command, or was in any way dis- 
turbed. 

Teachers who make mistakes in speaking are apt to 
make some useless motion with some portion of the 
body. This is an evidence of embarrassment ; it soon 

242 



MANNERISMS. 243 

comes to be a habit. Sew up the pockets of some of 
our young men, and they would hardly know how to 
act in company. The average student puts his hands in 
his pockets on all occasions. It is a studied mannerism 
with many young men. In college there was a student 
who had the habit of looking at a certain place n the 
wall every time he recited. On one occasion he was re- 
moved to another part of the room and, when called 
upon to recite, failed in his lesson because he could not 
find this particular spot. Another had the habit of 
playing with his watch charm. One day this was quietly 
removed just before his recitation. The result was a 
signal failure when he was called upon to recite. 

There are ministers, teachers, lawyers, who are addicted 
to certain useless movements. For example, one minister 
invariably unbuttoned his coat, placed his handkerchief 
on the Bible, wiped his face with the handkerchief, and 
arched his chest, before he began the long prayer. The 
author, as a boy, watched this man every Sunday, and 
wondered if his prayer was better because of the extra 
movements. Teachers stand in jDlace rest while giving 
instruction to the class or leading in military drill. The 
plan is a bad one. Few instructors can stand well while 
teaching. Some mannerisms are amusing, others are 
disagreeable. It is, of course, not always desirable for a 
teacher to stand perfectly still while directing a class, 
but there are times when she should, and when the time 
comes she cannot. It is recommended that teachers 
practice controlling themselves while standing before 
their pupils. The members of the class will very often 
unconsciously imitate the St. Vitus-like motions of the 



244: METHODS OF TEACHING GYMNASTICS. 

teacher. In one case, where the instructor was very 
much stooped, the little children tried their best to stand 
as if they were suffering from kyphosis. 

The nervous, irritable teacher seems to have harder 
work than the phlegmatic one, but the power to over- 
come mannerisms is, to some extent, an acquired one. 
There is hardly an argument in favor of these unneces- 
sary motions. They indicate lack of self-control ; they 
show nervousness, embarrassment, awkwardness, and 
are frequently unpleasant to the pupil and to the 
teacher. They are indications of wasted energy. The 
teacher who does not know what her mannerisms are 
should ask some candid friend to tell her when she 
makes mistakes. If she will watch other teachers, she 
will very soon see that the statements made under this 
heading are not exaggerated. Let the teacher make a 
study of herself, and she need not call on any of her 
friends to criticise her. It might be well for the one 
who reads this article to see whether there is a beam in 
her own eye before she attempts to remove the mote 
from her sister's. That these errors should be corrected 
there is no doubt. They detract much from the teacher's 
personal appearance. While physical education will be 
apt to cause mannerisms as quickly as any other profes- 
sion, at the same time the teacher can, if she wishes, 
overcome the tendency quicker than those who do not 
pay attention to muscular training. Of course, will 
power is needed, and in return, will power is developed 
if the defect is remedied. The author calls to mind only 
two of his many instructors who could stand perfectly 
still while leading a class. 



CHAPTER XIX. 

division of work for the month and day. 
Military Gymnastics. 

Below will be found an arrangement of lessons for a 
class of beginners. This can be given to a normal class 
in three months, after which time the teacher can give 
any of the work found in " Light Gymnastics," using 
her own judgment as to the kind and amount. 

The teacher should make a certain part of the drill a 
"lesson"; that is, she should give something new, 
should see that the class learns it, and then she can give 
any review work. 

The author generally adds a little to what is found in 
the list, but it is something the class has had before. 

Lesson No. 1. 
Fall in. 
Align. 
Dressing. 

Position of a soldier, or Attention. 
Place rest. 
Break ranks. 

Lesson No. 2. 
Right, left, and oblique face. 
Marking time by 
Stamping, tapping. • 
Swing the leg. 

245 



,246 METHODS OF TEACHING GYMNASTICS. 

Regular method. 

Halt from marking time. 

Lesson No. 3. 
About facing, German and American methods. 

Lesson No. 4- 
The start. 
Marching in a file. 
Turning corners. 
Halting. 

Lesson No. 5. 
Changing direction. 
Column right and left. 
Column half right and left. 
Counter marching to right and left. 

Lesson No. 6. 
Cadence. Common time. 
Short step. 



Back step. 

Side step. 
Quick time. 

Double time. 



Lesson No. 7. 



Lesson No. 8. 



Lesson No. 9. 
March in a line. 
Guides. 

Lesson No. 10. 
Oblique marching. 

Lesson No. 11. 
Form twos from a file. 
Right and left by file. 



DIVISION OF WORK. 247 

Lesson No. 12. 
T?orm fours from file. 
Right by twos. 
Right by file. 

Lesson No. IS. 
Change step. 

Lesson No. 14. 
To the rear, march. 

Lesson No. 15. 
Marching by the flank. 

Lesson No. 16. 
Marching four abreast and turning corners. 
Marching four abreast and keeping distance. 

Lesson No. 17. 
Fours right or left. 

Lesson No. 13. 
Fours right or left about. 

Lesson No. 19. 
Fours in circle. 

Lesson No. 20. 
Opening files. 

Lesson No. 21. 
Wheeling on a fixed pivot. 

Lesson No. 22. 
Wheeling on a movable pivot. 

Lesson No. 23. 
Oblique marching two and four abreast. 

Lesson No. 24. 
From column of twos form a line. 
From a line form column of twos. 



248 METHODS OF TEACHING GYMNASTICS. 

Lesson No. 25. 
From line form fours. 
From fours form line. 

Lesson No. 26. 
Right, forward, fours right. 

Lesson No. 27. 
On the right or left into line. 

Lesson No. 28. 
In double ranks form company. 

Free Gymnastics. 

Arrangement of lessons in light gymnastics for the 
gymnastic year for a normal class. 

There is such a great variety of work to be given under 
this heading that it will be impossible to give anything 
like a complete list or to classify all the movements. 

The teacher understands that these arrangements are 
tentative to a degree, that they will be modified with 
experience, and that they do not take the place of the 
regular drill in body building. 

If the author should make any criticism it would be 
that too much is given at a single lesson. 

Lesson No. 1. 
Planes of body. 
Directions. 
Arms down, up, front, out. 

Lesson No. 2. 
A typical lesson. (Follow the day's order.) 
Feet open and close. 
Foot placing. Figs. 12 and 14. 

Lesson No. 3. 
Stepping exercise. Fig. 10. 



DIVISION OF WORK. 249 

Lesson No. 4. 
Order movements. 
Hips firm. Fig. 32. 
Neck firm. Fig. 33. 
Letter Y. Fig. 6. 
Clasping hands. 
Arms folded. 

Lessons Nos. 5 and 6. 
The charging motion. Fig. 11. 

Lesson No. 7. 
The reverse charge. Fig. 13. 

Lesson No. 8. 
The swaying motions. 

Lesson No. 9. 
Wide and narrow bases. 
Lessons Nos. 10 and 11. Subject, the head. 
Bending and turning. 
Rolling. 

Oblique movements. 
Forcing. 
Resistance. 

Lesson No. 12. Subject, the leg. 
Heel raising. 
Foot flexing. 

Foot extension and circling. 
(This is for ankle, front, and back leg.) 

Lesson No. 13. Subject, hip and thigh. 
Flex leg. 

Lesson No. 14. 
Flex thigh. 

Bend and straighten the knee. 
Thigh swinging. 



250 METHODS OF TEACHING GYMNASTICS. 

Lesson No. 15. 
Lunging. 
Stamping. 

Lesson No. 16. Subject, swaying. 
Swaying with common and wide base. 

Lesson No. 17. Subject, running. 
Hopping and running. 

Lesson No. 18. Subject, the arm. 
Opening and closing the hand. 
Separate and close the fingers. 
Flex and extend the hand. 
Circling the hand. 

Lesson No. 19. 
Flex and rotate the arm. 
Arm swinging. 
Thrusting motions. 

Lesson No. 20. Subject, the arm, walking. 
Work for wrist by all forearm motions. 
Walking, knee bending, thigh flexing, leg 
swinging. 

Lesson No. 21. 
The seven primary exercises in walking. 

Lesson No. 22. Subject, gesture work. 
Angle work with arms. 
Curved lines for gesture. 

Lesson No. 23. Subject, compound work. 
Charging motions with arms swinging. 

Lesson No. 24. Subject, gesture work. 
Curved lines combined with swaying motions.. 
Attitudes, first group. 

Lesson No. 25. 
Attitudes one and two. 



DIVISION OF WORK. 251 

Lesson No. 26. 
Methods of placing the class. 

Lesson No. 27. Subject, balancing exercises. 

Toe standing with 

Arms front, up, out. 

Same, feet close. 

Review charging and walking exercises. 

Lesson No. 28. Subject, balancing. 

Stride toe standing with 
Arms up, front, out. 
Same walk toe standing. 
Review placing the class. 

Lesson No. 29. Subject, balancing* 

Balance step. 
Attitude No. 4. 

Lesson No. 30. Subject, balancing* 
Walk standing with half-bent knees. 
Same stride stand. 
Attitude No. 5. 

Lesson No. 31. Subject, balancing.. 
Flex legs. 
Flex thighs. 

Same with arms up, front, out. 
Review all attitudes. 

Lesson No. 32. Subject, shoulders^ 
Round shoulders. 
Primary : force, elevate, 

depress, roll. 
Secondary : setting up exercises. 
Circling motions. 
Attitudes good and bad. 



252 METHODS OF TEACHING GYMNASTICS. 

Lesson No. 33. Subject, shoulders, lunging. 

Uneven shoulders. 
Elevate or shrug. 
Secondary : arm swinging. 
Head bending. 
Lunging exercise. 

Lesson No. 34. Subject, shoulders, lunging. 

Bottle neck . 

Head bending to right and left. 
Arm swinging out and up. 
Shrugging shoulders. 
Lunging exercises. 

Lesson No. 35. Subject, the thorax. 

To widen. 

Primary : sternum expression. 

Secondary : shrug shoulders. 

Swing arm sideways. 

Bend body to right and left. Letter Y. 

Lesson No. 36. Subject, the thorax. 

To deepen . 

Primary : sternum expression. 

Secondary : bend head backward. 

Bend body backward. 

Swing arms front and up. 

Letter Y and bend backward. 

Hips firm and forward bend. 

Lesson No. 37. Subject, the lungs. 

Breathing by inhaling and exhaling in rhythm. 

Secondary : inhale and exhale and 

Bend head backward. 

Swing arms front and up, out and up. 

Percussing motions for the thorax. 




Fig. 3a.— Start for the Half Snake. (Page 237.) 





y 




DIVISION OF WORK. 253 

Lessons Nos._38 and 39. Subject, the heart and lungs. 
Preparation to jump. 
Hopping exercises. 
Running exercises. 
Precipitant work. 

Lesson No. 40. Quieting exercises. 
Slow leg work. 
Breathing. 

Lesson No. 41- Subject, the hips. 
'Swing legs to front, right, 
Back and obliquely back. 
-Bend body forward. 

Lesson No. 42. Subject, the back. 
Bend the body forward with 
Hips firm, neck firm, and arms up. 

Lesson No. 43. Subject, sides of the ivaist. 
Bend the body to right and left with 
Hips firm, neck firm, and arms up. 

Lesson No. 44. Subject, the abdomen. 
Bend body backward with 
Hips firm, neck firm, and arms up. 

Lessons Nos. 45, 46, and 47. 
Postures. 

Lessons Nos. 48, 49, and 50. 
Percussing movements. 

The following lessons have been used by the author in 
the public schools of the state of Connecticut : 

Lesson No. 1. 
Order Exercises : Position of attention, hips firm, arms 

down, out, up, and front. 
Leg : Feet close, feet open ; foot placing to right and left. 
Head : Head backward bend ; upward raise. 



254 METHODS OF TEACHING GYMNASTICS. 

Arm : Flex and extend fingers, with arms down, front, 

and up. 
Balancing : Stand on tiptoes, feet open. 
Shoulder : Force shoulders back, touching scapula. 
Thorax : Shrug shoulders. 
Waist : Hips firm, body backward bend. 
Back : Hips firm, body forward bend. 
Heart and Lungs. : Hopping on the right, then on the 

left foot. 
Quieting : Foot placing to right and left. 
Breathing : Shrug shoulders. 

Lesson No. 2. 
Order Exercises : Toe standing ; neck firm ; arms flexed. 
Leg : Stepping motions. 
Head : Neck firm, backward bend. 
Arm : Flexing and extending of hand, with arm in four 

positions. 
Balancing : Standing on toes, feet close. 
Shoulders : Hips firm, thumbs touching back of body. 
Thorax : Arms swinging front. 
Waist : Hips firm, body backward bending. 
Back : Forward bending. Hips firm, feet close. 
Heart and Lungs : Hopping on right and left foot. 
Quieting : Stepping motions. 
Breathing : Arm swinging front. 

Lesson No. S. 
Order Exercises : Upton's position of a soldier. Walk 

stand, hips firm, arms one-half flexed. 
Leg : Calf work, raise on toes. 
Head : Head to right and left bend. 
Arms : Rotate forearms, arms half flexed. 
Balancing : Walk toe standing. 
Shoulders : Flex arms, palms front. 
Thorax : Arm swinging out. 

Waist : Hips firm, body bending to right and left. 
Back : Neck firm, body forward bending. 



DIVISION OF WORK. 255 

Heart and Lungs : Hopping on right and left, and on 

both feet. 
Quieting : Calf work. 
Breathing : Arm swinging out. 

Lesson No. 4. 
Order Exercises : Hips firm. Stride toe stand. Hands 

clasped on head. 
Leg : Front leg work, raise toes. 
Head : Hand on head, head to right and left bend. 
Arms : Twist entire arm, in four positions. 
Balancing : Stand on one foot. 
Shoulders : The position of a diver. 
Thorax : Arm swinging front and up. 
Waist : Hips firm. Turn body to right and left. 
Back : Feet close, hips firm, body forward bending. 
Heart and Lungs : Running in place. 
Quieting : Front leg work. 
Breathing : Arm swinging front. 

Lesson No. 5. 
Order Exercises : Letter Y, neck firm, stride toe stand. 
Legs : Flex the legs (back thigh). 
Head : Head to right and left turn. 
Arms : Flex and extend arms. 
Balancing : Stand on one foot, arms up. 
Shoulders : From position of a soldier, take letter Y. 
Thorax : Arm swinging up, slapping hands above 

head. Arm swinging front, up, back, and down. 
Waist : Stride standing, backward bending, neck firm. 
Back : Bending obliquely forward to right and left, hips 

firm. 
Heart and Lungs : Hopping, separate and touch the 

feet. 
Quieting : Flex the legs. 
Breathing : Arm swinging front. 

Lesson No. 6. 
Order Exercises : Letter Y, feet close, toe standing. 



256 METHODS OF TEACHING GYMNASTICS. 

Leg : Half lower body (front thigh). 

Head : Head backward forcing. 

Arms : Flex and rotate arms. 

Balancing : Stand on one foot, swinging other leg for- 
ward and backward. 

Shoulders : Arms front, out, and down. 

Thorax : Body forward bend, arm thrusting up. 

Waist : Backward bending, neck firm. 

Back : Forward bending, neck firm. 

Heart and Lungs : Hopping, separating and touching 
feet. 

Quieting : Half lower body. 

Breathing : Arm swinging out and up. 

Lesson No. 7. 
Order Exercises : The charging position. 
Leg : Leg swinging for hip region. 
Head : Head backward force, neck firm. 
Arm : Deltoid, arm swinging. 
Balancing : Stand on one foot, and point the other leg 

front, out, and back. 
Shoulder : Elevate the right and lower the left by arm 

flexion and extension. 
Thorax : Arm bending and extending upward. 
Waist : Arms up, body bending to right and left. 
Back : Forward bending, neck firm. Feet close. 
Heart and Lungs : Running in place, increasing the 

number of times. 
Quieting : Leg swinging for hip region. 
Breathing : Arm swinging out and up. 

Lesson No. 8. 
Order Exercises : Charging position with arms up* 

Arm flinging position. 
Leg : Thigh flexing. 
Head : Rolling motions. 

Arm : Position of arm flinging and elbow out. 
Balancing : Place rest, and on the heels stand. 



DIVISION OF WORK. 257 

Shoulder : Setting up exercise No. 1. 

Thorax : Arms front, out, up, and down. 

Waist : Arms up, body bending to right and left. 

Back: Forward bending, neck firm. Walk stand. 

Heart and Lungs : Running in place, increasing the 

number of times. 
Quieting : Thigh flexing. 
Breathing : Arm swinging front and up. 

Lesson No. 9. 

Order Exercises : Arms out, and body turn to right and 

left. 
Leg : Raise on toes, then half lower body. 
Head : Head backward bending, with resistance. 
Arm : Flex arm, extend arm, and deltoid work. 
Balancing : Both mark time and halt on heels. 
Shoulder : Setting up exercise No. 2. 
Thorax : Charging position, arm thrusting up. 
Waist : Body bending backward, arms up. 
Back : Forward bending, arms up. 
Heart and Lungs ; Running in place, increasing the 

number of times. 
Quieting : Raise on toes and half lower body. 
Breathing : Arm swinging front and up. 

Dumb Bells. 
Below will be found a division of dumb bell work for 
use at each lesson. The drills themselves are somewhat 
old, but are given more to illustrate the methods of 
dividing lessons than to call attention to the drills them- 
selves. The author recommends the Roberts bell drill 
for young men (R. J. Roberts, Y. M. C. A., Boston, 
Mass.), also the Hitchcock dumb bell drill used at 
Amherst College (Dr. Edward Hitchcock, Amherst,. 
Mass). 



258 METHODS OF TEACHING GYMNASTICS. 

The book entitled "Light Gymnastics" has not been 
revised by the author and is not therefore up to date in 
all respects, but it will be of assistance to the beginner. 

Young teachers should be original if possible and not 
depend too much on others. 

The pages mentioned refer to " Light Gymnastics." 

Lessons Nos. 1 to 5. The alphabet. 

(1) Attention. 
Bells on hips. 
Bells on chest, a b. 

Bells on shoulders, a b. Page 117. 

(2) Salutes. 
Bells at back. 
Arms folded. 

Bells under shoulders. 

(3) Angles. 
Circling motions. 

(4) Flexing. 
Swinging. 
Twisting. 
Striking motions. 

(5) Anvil strike. 
Pushing the bell. 

Lessons Nos. 6 and 7. First series. 

(6) Nos. I., II., III., IV., V., VI. 

(7) Nos. VII., VIII., IX., X., XL, XII. Page 123. 

Lessons Nos. 8, 9, and 10. Second series. 

(8) Nos. L, II., V. 

(9) Nos. III., IV., VII. 

(10) Nos. VI. and VII. Page 125. 

Lessons Nos. 11 and 12. The arm. 

(11) Develop forearm. 

(12) Develop upper arm. 



DIVISION OF WORK. 259 

Lessons Nos. 13 and 14. Marching series. 

(13) Nos. I., II., III. 

(14) Nos. IV., V. Page 130. 

Lessons Nos. 15 and 16. Marching series. 

(15) Circling motions. 

(16) Thrusting motions. Page 130. 

Lessons Nos. 17 to 21. Third series. 

(17) Nos. I., II., III. 

(18) Nos. IV., V, VI., VIII. 

(19) Nos. IX., X., XL 

(20) Nos. XII., XIII. 

(21) Nos. XIV., XV. Page 126. 

Lessons Nos. 22 and 23. Third marching series. 

(22) Nos. I., II., III., V., VI. 

(23) Nos. VII., VIII., X., XL, XII. Page 130. 

Lessons Nos. 24 to 27. Anvil Chorus. 

(24) Nos. I., II., VI. 

(25) Nos. III., IV, VII., VIII. 

(26) Nos. V., IX., X. 

(27) Nos. XL, XII. Page 131. 

Lessons Nos. 28 to 30. The thorax. 

(28) Widen the chest, 

(29) Deepen the chest. 

(30) Breathing exercises. 

Lessons Nos. 31 to 33. Pizzicati Chorus. 

(31) Nos. I., II., V. 

(32) Nos. III., IV., VI. 

(33) Nos. VIL, VIIL, IX., X., XL Page 134. 

The Wands. 
Much that has been said about the bells will apply to 
the wands. There is such a variety of motions with this 



260 METHODS OF TEACHING GYMNASTICS. 

piece of apparatus that we can only call attention to 
some of the exercises. 

Lessons Nos. 1 to 3. The alphabet. 

(1) Nos. I., II., III., IV., V. 

(2) Nos. VI., VII., VIII., IX. 

. (3) Nos. X., XL, XII. Page 83. 

Lessons Nos. 4 to 6. Marching series. 

(4) Nos. I., II. , III., IV., V. 

(5) Nos. VI., VII. , VIII. 

(6) The entire alphabet. Page 89. 

Lessons Nos. 7 and 8. First series. 

(7) Take Nos. I. to VIII. 

(8) Take the rest of the lesson. Page 89. 

Lessons Nos. 9 to 12. Second series. 

(9) Nos. L, II., III. 

(10) Nos. IV., V, VI. 

(11) Nos. VII., VIIL, IX. 

(12) No. X. Page 91. 

Lessons Nos. 13 to 21. Third series. 

(13) Nos. I., II., III. 

(14) Nos. IV, V., VI. 

(15) Nos. VII., VIIL, IX. 
(16, 17) The winding motions. 

(18) No. X. 

(19) No. XL 

(20) No. XII. 

(21) No. XIII. Page 96. 

Lessons Nos. 22 to 24. Manual of arms. 

(22) Present, Charge, Port. 

(23) Order, Parade rest, Carry arms. 

(24) Inspect and fire. Page 103. 



DIVISION OF WORK. 261 

Lessons Nos. 25 and 26. Bayonet drill. 

(25) Right and left guard, Parries and high guard. 

(26) Thrust to rear, high, middle, and low. Page 108. 

Club Swinging. 

The following arrangement of movements in club 
swinging, which comprise thirty lessons, does not cover 
the ground. One who has handled clubs for several years 
will find that there is yet much to learn. Page 139. 
Lesson No, 1. — Position. " Pass." Heart-shaped circles 

out. Pendulum (single club). 
Lesson No. 2. — Heart-shaped circles reversed. 
Lesson No. 3. — Heart-shaped circles to the front. 
Lesson No. 4. — Heart-shaped circles to the rear. 
Lesson No. 5.— Double heart-shaped circles to the right 

and left and out. 
Lesson No. 6— Double pendulum and lower front circle. 
Lesson No. 7.— Shoulder circles reversed. 
Lessons Nos. 8 and 9. — Shoulder circles front. 
Lessons Nos. 10 and 11.— Shoulder circles out. 
Lesson No. 12. — Halves of complete circles reversed. 
Lesson No. 13. — Halves of complete circles out. 
Lessons Nos. 14 and 15. — Complete shoulder circles out. 
Lessons Nos. 16 and 17. — Complete circles reversed. 
Lesson No. 18. — Heart-shaped circles follow time. 
Lesson No. 19. — Same circles reel time. 
Lesson No. 20. — The drop outside. 
Lesson No. 21. — The drop inside. 
Lesson No. 22. —The raise outside. 
Lesso?i No. 23. — The raise inside. 
Lesson No. 24. — The single overhead parallel. 
Lesson No. 25. — The reel. 
Lesson No. 26.— The follow. 
Lessons Nos. 27, 28, and 29. — Single lower back. 
Lesson No. 30. — The double lower back. 

Lessons 1, 2, 3, and 4 are taken with one club. 



262 methods of teaching gymnastics. 

School Fencing. 
Method of arranging the lessons in broadsword fenc- 
ing for school use : 

Lessons Nos. 1 and 2.— Half face. Feet at 90 degrees. 
Bend knees. Advance foot and place arms in posi- 
tion. (Use no sword.) 

Lesson No 3.— On guard, advance and retreat by steps. 
(No sword.) 

Lesson No. 4. — On guard, advance and retreat by leaps. 
(No sword.) 

Lesson No. 5. — On guard, using the sword for the first 
time. 

Lesson No. 6.— Head, cheek, and shoulder guard. 

Lesson No. 7. — Leg guards. 

Lesson No. £.— Practice all guards. Advance, retreat, 
and sway. 

Lesson No. 9. — Form twos and give head blow. 

Lesson No. 10.— Cheek and shoulder blows. 

Lesson No. 11. — Leg blows. 

Lesson No. 12. — Practice all blows. 

Lesson No. 13. — Lunging. 

Lesson No. 14.— Lunging and striking. 

Lesson No. 15. — Begin the series. 
For details see page 171. 





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This is to show the blank form used by the author in outlining the 
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A LIST OF BOOKS FOR REFERENCE. 

Arnaud and Delausmone : The Delsarte System. 

Ascham : Schoolmaster. 

Baine : Education as a Science. 

Baine : Lectures on the Science and Art of Education. 

Bishop : Americanized Delsarte Culture. 

Browning : Educational Theories. 

Comenius : Great Didactic. 

Compayre : History of Pedagogy. 

Compayre : Lectures on Pedagogy. 

Everett : Primer of Ethics. 

Fitch : Lectures on Teaching, 

Hall : Pedagogical Seminary. 

Hughes : Mistakes in Teaching. 

Johonnot : Practice of Teaching. 

Kirke : Hand-book of Physiology. 

Locke : Thoughts Concerning Education. 

Milton : Tractate on Education. 

Oscar Browning : Practice of Education. 

Parker : Talks on Teaching. 

Payne : Theory, Practice, and History of Education. 

Pestalozzi : Leonard and Gertrude. 

Posse : Kinesiology. 

Preyer : Infant Mind. 

Quick : Lives of Educational Reformers. 

Rousseau : Emile. 

Seaver : Physical Diagnosis. 

Spencer : Education. 

Sweet : Methods of Teaching. 

Turing : Theory and Practice of Teaching. 

White : School Management. 



INDEX. 



Alignments, 201. 

Alphabet, 158. 

American system, 47. 

Amiel, 54. 

Analysis, 111. 

Anderson, H. S., 13. 

Ankle, 123. 

Anvil Chorus, 223. 

Aristotle, 32, 56. 

Arms, 124. 

Arnold, 25. 

Attention, 84, 183. 

Automatic movements, 113. 

Back, 64. 

Back step, 198. 

Bain, 19. 

Balancing movements, 63. 

Base, common, 15; narrow, 

wide, 15. 
Basedow, 22, 83, 105. 
Bells, 216. 
Bishop, 47. 
Blackston, 19. 
Blaikie, 79. 
Bolin, 12, 68. 
Bowne, B. P., 49. 
Boys, how to teach, 171. 
Breal, 93. 

Breathing, 135, 145. 
Brosius, 186. 
Browning, 33, 77. 
Buisson, 104. 
Carlyle, 22, 54. 
Change step, 196. 
Changing weight, 155. 
Charging motion, 159. 
Charge, reverse, 160. 
Chauvet, 28. 
Chest, 134. 
Chivalry, 34. 
Circling motions, 161. 
Clark, 38, 55. 
Club swinging, 261. 
Clubs, 229. 
Comenius, 22, 164. 
Commands, 164. 
Compayre, 26. 
Condillac, 84. 

Corporal punishment, 100, 105. 
Cowper, 54. 
Day's order, 57. 
Defects, 149. 
Delsarte, 40, 46. 



Deltoid, 128. 

Denzel, 28. 

De Quincey, 54. 

De Saussure, 28, 86, 91. 

Developing work, 14. 

Dickinson, Dr. R. L.., 20, 38, 146. 

Directions, 150. 

Discipline, 95. 

Division of work for year, 245. 

Double time, 200. 

Drop circle, 235. 

Dumb bells, 216, 257. 

Education, general, 26. 

Eggleston, Edward, 102. 

Eliot, 76. 
! Emerson, R. W., 38, 55. 

Enebuske, 69. 
15 ; Ethics, 40. 

Exercise, compound, 14 ; double, 
14; simple, 14. 

Exercises, primary, 14 ; second- 
ary, 14. 

Facings, right and left, 190. 

Fencing, 238, 262. 

Fitz, 70. 

Flank movements, 203. 

Foot extension and flexion, 155. 

Foot raising, 155. 

Football, 50. 

Form fours from a line, 211. 

Form fours from file of twos, 208. 

Form twos from fours, 210. 

Form twos from a line, 210. 

Form twos and fours from file, 



Fours right or left, 211. 

French program, 38. 

Froebel, 22, 23, 24, 38, 39. 

Gargantua, 37. 

German system, 45, 46. 

Government, 95. 

Grace, 45, 117. 

Grant, Horace, 86. 

Greeks, 29, 31. 

Gulick, Dr. Luther, 238. 

Guts Muth, 45. 

Gymnastic selection, 58 ; totality, 
58 ; unity, 59. 

Gymnastics, aesthetic, 14 ; cor- 
rective, 14 ; educational, 13 ; 
free, 14, 248 ; heavy, 14 ; light, 
14 ; medical, 13 ; military, 14, 
183, 245. 



•_V,7 



268 



INDEX. 



Hall, G. Stanley, 55, 76, 111. 
Halt, 194. 

Hartwell, Dr. E. M., 41. 
Head, 122. 
Health, 115. 
Heave-movements, 62. 
Hitchcock, Dr. E., 92, 257. 
Hopping, 162. 
Hour division, 178. 
Hughes, 20. 
Huxley, 37. 
Interest, 83. 

Introductory movements, 61. 
Ireson, Jennie M., 90. 
Jacotot, 22, 25. 
James, 53. 
Joly, 28. 
Kant, 27, 94, 105. 
Kellogg, Dr., 146. 
Kingsley, 56. 
Knee bending, 154. 
Kyphosis, 147. 
Ladd, 70. 
La Grange, 146. 
Leg movements, 61, 65, 66. 
Leg swinging, 155. 
Legs, 123. 

Le Row, C. B., 100. 
Letter " Y ", 139. 
Ling, 12, 13, 68. 
Locke, 22, 35, 83, 105. 
Lunging motions, 162. 
Luther, 34. 
Mahaffy, 29. 
Mann, 56. 
Mannerisms, 242. 
March, by the flank, 203 ; in file, 
189 ; in line, 202 ; to the rear, 191. 
Marion, 28, 56. 
Marking time, 192. 
Mays, Dr., 146. 
Melancthon, 35. 
Memory exercises, 119. 
Military gymnastics, 14, 183, 245. 
Mill, 20, 22, 28. 
Milton, 37. 

Mistakes in teaching, 106. 
Montaigne, 35, 106. 
Morrill, A. B., 221. 
Mosher,Dr. E. M., 163, 188. 
Munger, 54. 
Music, 35. 
Neck, 122. 
Niemeyer, 28. 
Opinions of educators, 16. 
Oblique face, 189. 
Oblique march, 205. 
Order movements, 60. 
Order of exercises, 12. 
Parker, 55, 99. 
Pascal, 54. 
Payne, 24, 25, 26, 27, 39, 86, 91. 



; Pedagogy, 26. 

Pestalozzi, 22, 26. 

Philbrick, John, 22. 

Physical education, German, 40 ; 
Greek, 29 ; opinions on, 29 ; Ro- 
man, 32 ; Swedish, 40. 

Physique, 116. 

Place rest, 188. 

Placing, 161. 

Platform, 9. 

Plato, 27, 32, 171. 

Play, 24, 39. 

Posse, Baron, 68, 139, 185. 

Precipitant movements, 66. 

Pulse-rate, 68. 

Quarter circle, 142. 

Quick, 36. 

Rabelais, 36, 37, 105. 

Ratich, 22, 23. 

Reel, 235. 

Reflex acts, 111. 

Reformers, 34. 

Relations of teacher to parent, 
109. 

Respiratory exercises, 66. 

Reverse charge, 160. 

Richards. E. L., 83, 118. 

Richter, Jean Paul, 102. 

Right, forward, fours right, 212. 

Roberts, R. J., 138, 167. 

Round work, 120. 

Rousseau, 22, 28, 36. 

Running, 163. 

Sarcasm, 100. 

Schmidt, 46. 

School government, 95. 

Scripture, 70. 

Seaver, 70, 145, 230. 

Seldon, 18. 

Self-control, 117. 

Self-reliance, 117. 

Shoulders, 130. 

Side movements, 65. 

Simon, 28. 

Skarstrom, 43. 

Snake, 236. 

Socrates, 29, 32. 

Spencer,, 18, 22, 28, 29, 39, 87, 97. 

Spine, 147. 

Starting, 193. 

Step, back, 198 ; long, 199 ; short, 
199; side, 198. 

Stepping motion, 158. 

Stimulus, 76. 

Strength, 115. 

Sully, 93. 

Swaying, 153, 161. 

Swedish day's order, 12. 

Swedish system, 12, 45, 74. 

Swett, 38, 104. 

Swinging motions, 161. 

Synthesis, 111. 



INDEX. 



269 



Tense-bendings, 61. 
Terms, 13. 

Thigh swinging, 156. 
Thorax, 134. 
Trotzendorf, 35. 
Twos, right or left, 210, 
Tyndall, 21. 
Voice, 164. 



211. 



Walking, how to teach, 151. 
Wands, 226, 259. 
Warner, 46. 
Wheelings, 205. 
Who should teach ? 115. 
Why do we teach ? 115. 
Will, 118. 
Xenophon, 29. 



